MA-AIHCA II SEM - 201 HISTORIOGRAPHY

 MA-AIHCA II SEMESTER (201) - HISTORIOGRAPHY

HISTORY, ITS MEANING

The word History has come from a Greek word historia whose litrary meaning is,  'inquiry, knowledge from inquiry, or judge'

In the words of E. H. Carr, History like theology or natural science, is a special form of thought.

John Jacob Anderson says, It is a narration of events which have happened among mankind, including an account of rise and fall of nations, as well as of other great changes which have affected the political and social condition of the human race.

Jawaharlal Nehru: “History is the story of Man’s struggle through the ages against Nature and the elements; against wild beasts and the jungle and some of his own kind who have tried to keep him down and to exploit him for their own benefit.”

Smith,V.S: “The value and interest of history depend largely on the degree in which the present is illuminated by the past.”

E.J. Rapson: “History is a connected account of the course of events or progress of ideas.”

We may say that it is a dialogue between the present and the past. This comprise past events as well as the memory, discovery, collection, oraganization, presentation and interpretation of these events.

In the modern era History is an academic discipline which covers all aspects of human society (political, social, economic, scientific, technological, medical, cultural etc) and uses narrative to describe, examine, question and analyze past events and investigate their patterns of cause and effect. Historians debate the nature of history as an end in itself, as well as its usefulness to give perspective on the problems of the present.

Professional historians are specialized individuals in particular aspect of history, a specific time period, a certain approach to history or a specific geographic region.

A historian seek knowledge of the past using “historical sources” such as written documents, oral accounts, art and material artefacts and ecological markers.

OBJECTIVE OF HISTORY :

Objective of History is to find out, actions of human beings that have been done in the past. History aims at helping students to understand the present existing social, political, religious and economic conditions of the people, their religion, customs institutions, administration .Cause-and-effect relationship between the past and the present is lively presented in the history. History thus helps us to understand the present day problems both at the national and international level accurately and objectively.

1. To promote self understanding – self awareness and realization

2. to give proper conception of time space and society. Relationship between past and present

3. To enable the pupils to assess the values and achievements of their own age

4. To teach the tolerance

5. to foster nationalism feeling

6. to develop right attitudes

7. understanding and resolving contemporary social and individual problems

8. knowledge of significant world events

9. understand commonality among various civilizations

Problems of Historical Objectivity.

a) Lack of impartiality-nothing itself can be objective. Objectivity is established in it. Partial description of events is a great hurdle in the way of establishing objectivity.

b) Influence of Social Environment- as history is also born and developed in the context of society and religion, it is equally influenced by it.

c ) Changeability in History- Historian of each generation writes history according to their own angles. Because of changeability in history, thought of scientific objectivity is a nightmare.

d) Change in Beliefs- Historical authencity of the present would also become meaningless in future. Scientific objectivity is beyond challenge, however the nature of historical objectivity is not sovereign in all the times.

e) Need of ages- As the history of one epoch differs from the other it is not possible to prove historical objectivity at all.

f) Influence of Personal feelings-many of the works of historians are inspired by his personal feelings, as a result objectivity is marred.

g) Feeling of bias- many historians like G.M Travelyn has opined that the presence of bias and sympathy is certain in history.

NATURE OF THE HISTORY ;

1. A study of the present in the light of the past.

2. History is the study of men. - struggle, biographies, society, incidents, events

3. History is conecerned with man in space -

4. History is concerned with man in time -

5. Objective record of happenings

6. Multisided : - economic, political, cultural, social, military, tech, science

7. History is a dialoge between the events of the past and future-

8. Not only narration but also analysis- comparison adn contrast, validity, reliablity

9. Continuity and coherence are the necessary requisite of history – Human progress

10. Relevant

11. Comprehaensiveness

HISTORY AS A SCIENCE OR AN ART

History is a science in the sense that it pursues its own techniques to establish and interpret facts. Like other natural sciences such as the Physics and Chemistry uses various methods of enquiry such as observation, classification, experiment and formulation of hypothesis and analysis of evidence before interpreting and reconstructing the past. History also follows the scientific method of enquiry to find out the truth.

History both as science and as an art.

1. No forecasting as in the case of science for similar incidents,

2. Nothing concrete, everything based on assumptions of dedcution/conjectures.

3. complex complicated seldom repeat.

4. wide scope no uniformity,

5. no observation or experimentation,

6. no dependable data

SCOPE OF HISTORY

The scope of history is vast, it means comprehensiveness, variety and extent of learning experiences provided by the study. Nearly anything history can be traced with repect to its invention/discovery, usage and variation.

universal history of mankind, depicting man’s achievements in every field of life-political, economic, social, cultural, scientific, technological, religious and artistic etc., and at various levels-local, regional, national, and international. It starts with the past; makes present its sheet-anchor and points to the future. Events like wars, revolutions, rise and fall of empires, fortunes and misfortunes of great empire builders as well as the masses in general are all the subject matter of history.

History is a comprehensive subject and includes-History of Geography, History of Art, History of Culture, History of Literature, History of Civilization, History of Religion, History of Mathematics, History of Physics, History of Chemistry, History of Education, History of Biology, History of Atom, History of Philosophy

POSITIVIST CONCEPT

In historiography, historical or documentary positivism is the belief that historians should pursue the objective truth of the past by allowing historical sources to "speak for themselves", without additional interpretation. In the words of the French historian Fustel de Coulanges, as a positivist, "It is not I who am speaking, but history itself". The heavy emphasis placed by historical positivists on documentary sources led to the development of methods of source criticism, which seek to expunge bias and uncover original sources in their pristine state.

The origin of the historical positivist school is particularly associated with the 19th-century German historian Leopold von Ranke,

Positivism may be defined as philosophy acting in the service of natural science, it has two parts, Facts and Laws. The facts were immediately ascertained by sensuous perception. The laws were framed through generalizing from these facts by induction. Under this influence a new kind of historiography arose, which may be called positivistic historiography.

Throwing themselves with enthusiasm into the first part of the positivist programme, historians set to work to ascertain all the facts they could. The result was a vast increase of detailed historical knowledge, based to an unprecedented degree on accurate and critical examination of evidence. This was the age which enriched history by the compilation of vast masses of carefully sifted material, like the corpus of inscription, various archaeological findings, historical texts, literature and any other source of historical type.

EXTERNAL CRITICISM

INTERNAL CRITICISM : POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE CRITICISM

HISTORICAL EVIDENCE:

evidence is the raw material of history teaching and learning. History proceeds by the interpretation of evidence: where evidence is a collective name for things which singly are called documents. From these documents, the historian can get answers to the questions he asks about past events.

Evidence used in history can be defined as “materials” that gives signs or proofs of the existence of historical events. However, the accumulation of evidence alone doesn’t make history as they must be supported with interpretation by the historian. The relationship between the historian and the evidence used in historical deconstruction is one of the major themes in history today. Historical reconstructing can be explained as “studying history at its most basic level”^[1] and “value” as used in the question means the significance of the evidence in historical explanation of past events. This essay seeks to explain why the evidence used in historical deconstruction owes its value to the interpreter of sources with three main points namely; it is the historian who pick the evidence, the historian interprets the evidence and it is the historian who organizes and present the evidence to his readers.

FACT : -

According to the commonsense view, there are certain basic facts which are the same for all historians and which from, so to speak the backbone of history, the fact, for example that the battle of hastings was fought in 1066 – facts are two (1.) the great battle was fought in 1066 and not in 1065 or 1067 and (2) that it was fought at hastings not at Eastbourne or Brighton.

Origin and period of fragment of pottery or marble, dating of sculpture, decipher of an obscure inscription, reading manuscript and establishing date, the so called basic facts which are the same for all historians, commonly belong to the category of the raw materials of the historian rather than of history itself.

Fact as an incident noticed by eye witness or in any inscriptions by the epigraphists, first appear in footnotes, then in the texts of articles and then in books.

LIMITATIONS OF FACTS

The historian uses these fact according to their priority and decision or ideology while writing history. They not just only present facts but sometimes twist them or present them selectively.

Interpretation of the historian is a preposterous fallacy, Historian seems to belong to a particular ideology and according to it he chooses facts.

Sometimes a standalone incident becomes fact and generalized by the historian for other similar cases. And sometimes various similar incidents known as facts are discarded to be recognized as generic fact. This has happened alot in the history of history writing.

With the passage of time, the facts related to an incident get diminished as per the requirement of a historian who choose to cover that part of incident in his history writing. Hence, gradually these facts get reduced over the period of time. These few known facts are all known facts of the history. Sometimes due ot loss/lapse of facts, periods between in the history have lacunae and have lots of missing parts.

For example, the history of Mauryans are well known, while there is a silent gap between Mauryans and Kushanas. Similarly, there is well known period of Gupta empire but we have very less information about the period of 200 years just after Gupta.s

Our picture has been preselected and predetermined for us, not so much by accident as by people who were consciously or unconsciously imbued with a particular view and thought the facts which supported that view worth preserving.

The dead hand of vanished generations of historians, scribes, and chroniclers has determined beyond the possibility of appeal the pattern of the past.’ The history we read;' writes Professor Barraclough, himself trained as a medievalist, 'though based on facts, is, strictly speaking, not factual at all, but a series of accepted judgements."

METHOD OF HISTORY

The term historical method refers to the collection of techniques and guidelines that historians use to research and write histories of the past. Primary and secondary source and material evidence such as that derived from archaeological excavation may all be drawn on, and the historian's skill lies in identifying these sources, evaluating their relative authority, and combining their testimony appropriately in order to construct an accurate and reliable picture of past events and environments.

There are some well defined and specific method utilizing which a history is written. The History proceeds by the interpretation of evidence: where evidence is a collective name for things which singly are called documents. From these documents, the historian can get answers to the questions he asks about past events.

SOURCE OF HISTORY :

Historians use all forms of evidence to examine, interpret, revisit, and reinterpret the past. These include not just written documents, but also oral communication and objects such as buildings, artifacts, photographs, and paintings.

1. Historians who write history emphasize the value of primary sources, that is those sources actually dating from a particular time period, while understanding the limitations of such sources. (most archaeological findings are primary sources)

2. Historians list all the sources from they have collected information in writing their view in footnotes and bibiliographies in their works. This help others scholars to refer to the source of information. It also shows that the writer is very careful in picking information as well as credible in citing of the source.

Providing footnotes and a bibliography is how historians demonstrate their methodology and support their conclusions.

3. Historians know that the philosophy and methodology of history have changed over time and will keep changing. Many different interpretations of all historical topics exist. Historians must work to recognize the difference between facts and interpretations in their field.

historians have various ways of organizing history thematically and chronologically. Periodization, to historians, is just a convenient form of broad organization, especially useful for course listings in university catalogs and subject headings in library catalogs.

SOURCE CRITICISM :

Source criticism (or source evaluation) is the process of evaluating the qualities of an information source such as its validity, reliability, and relevance to the subject under investigation.

Gilbert J. Garraghan and Jean Delanglez divide source criticism into six inquiries:

1. When was the source, written or unwritten, produced (date)?

2. Where was it produced (localization)?

3. By whom was it produced (authorship)?

4. From what pre-existing material was it produced (analysis)?

5. In what original form was it produced (integrity)?

6. What is the evidential value of its contents (credibility)?

Above 5 points are internal criticism and 6^th point is external criticism.

Subsequent descriptions of historical method, outlined below, have attempted to overcome the credulity built into the first step formulated by the nineteenth century historiographers by stating principles not merely by which different reports can be harmonized but instead by which a statement found in a source may be considered to be unreliable or reliable as it stands on its own.

PRINCIPLE OF SOURCE CRITICISM :

• Any given source may be forged or corrupted. Strong indications of the originality of the source increase its reliability.

• The closer a source is to the event which it purports to describe, the more one can trust it to give an accurate historical description of what actually happened.

• An Eyewitness is more reliable than testimony at second hand which is more reliable than hearsay at further remove and so on.

• If a number of independent sources contain the same message, the credibility of the message is strongly increased.

• The tendency of a source is its motivation for providing some kind of bias. Tendencies should be minimized or supplemented with opposite motivations.

• If it can be demonstrated that the witness or source has no direct interest in creating bias then the credibility of the message is increased.

EYEWITNESS EVIDENCE :

R. J. Shafer offers this checklist for evaluating eyewitness testimony.

1. Is the real meaning of the statement different from its literal meaning? Are words used in senses not employed today? Is the statement meant to be ironic (i.e., mean other than it says)?

2. How well could the author observe the thing he reports? Were his senses equal to the observation? Was his physical location suitable to sight, hearing, touch? Did he have the proper social ability to observe: did he understand the language, have other expertise required;

3. How did the author report?, and what was his ability to do so? Regarding his ability to report, was he biased? Did he have proper time for reporting? Proper place for reporting? Adequate recording instruments? When did he report in relation to his observation? Soon? Much later? What was the author's intention in reporting? For whom did he report? Would that audience be likely to require or suggest distortion to the author?

4. Do his statements seem inherently improbable: e.g., contrary to human nature, or in conflict with what we know?

5. Remember that some types of information are easier to observe and report on than others.

6. Are there inner contradictions in the document?

INDIRECT WITNESS :

Most of the historical information comes from indirect witnesses, these are people who were not present on the scene but heard of the events from someone else. The historian my sometimes use hearsay witnesses evidence when no primary texts are available. There are some points to remember while considering indirect witnesses. 1. on whose primary testimony does the secondary witness base his statement. 2. Did the secondary witness accurately report the primary testimony as a whole. 3. In what details did he accurately report the primary testimony.

ORAL TRADITIONS :

Sometimes oral tradtion may be accepted if it satisfies some conditions. According to Gilbert Garraghan there Two broad conditions, as follows:

1. Broad conditions stated.

   1. The tradition should be supported by an unbroken series of witnesses, reaching from the immediate and first reporter of the fact to the living mediate witness from whom we take it up, or to the one who was the first to commit it to writing.

   2. There should be several parallel and independent series of witnesses testifying to the fact in question.

Particular conditions formulated.

1. The tradition must report a public event of importance, such as would necessarily be known directly to a great number of persons.

2. The tradition must have been generally believed, at least for a definite period of time.

3. During that definite period it must have gone without protest, even from persons interested in denying it.

4. The tradition must be one of relatively limited duration. Garraghan suggests a maximum limit of 150 years,

5. The critical spirit must have been sufficiently developed while the tradition lasted, and the necessary means of critical investigation must have been at hand.

6. Critical-minded persons who would surely have challenged the tradition– must have made no such challenge.

Other methods of verifying oral tradition may exist, such as comparison with the evidence of archaeological remains.

HISTORIOGRAPHY

1. Historiography is the writing of history based on the critical examination of sources. Selecting the particular details from the authentic material and synthesis of those details into a narrative that can withstand the critical analysis by others.

2. Historiography is in modern times refers to study of history of histroy writing. In other words to study the way history has been written by different historians. Under Historiograhy we do not study the events of past but we analyse the changing interpretation and narratives in historical works.

Literally, the word means "the writing of history." In modern usage, however, the word refers to the study of the way history has been and is written--the history of historical writing. The study of historical method and of different ways of writing history is known as histriography.

Historiography is the study of the various approaches to historical method, the actual writing of history, the various interpretations of historical events.

Historiography is the study of the techniques employed by the individual historian.

The primary sources of historiography are the works of historians. It is not necessary to study primary materials, i.e., original source materials, in order to study historiography. For historiography is concerned mainly with the various schools of thought and interpretation centered around any particular historical occurrence--not with the source materials from which the historical fact was derived, although the methodology employed by the historian may be scrutinized to substantiate his or her conclusions.

Historiography can also be understood as meta-history or second-degree history, meaning the study of how historians have built their readings of the past.

Questions of historiography include the following:

• who writes history, with what agenda in mind, and towards what ends?

• how accurate can a historian ever hope to be, analyzing past events from the vantage point of the historian's present?

• does the historian's own perspective, impacted as it undoubtedly is by gender, age, national and ideological affiliation, etc., contribute to an "agenda" that the historian's work is playing into, unwittingly or consciously?

• what about the TYPE OF SOURCES, an historian chooses to base his or her work upon?

• does the very selection of sources (and, by extension, the decision to exclude certain other sources) prejudice the outcome of the historian's work in certain ways? et cetera..

Historiography in India begans systematically in colonial period, when the British needed to firmly establish themselves in India. For that they felt need to learn history of India to know Indian culture, tadition and ideology structure. It started in 18^th century when history writing was done keeping in view the neccessity of the British.

This apporach was called as the Colonial approach/Imperial approach

In this approach, Imperial interests were kept in view and the history of colonies were written in putting the colonisers in positive light. The theme of empire building in the historical works of the British naturally gave rise to a set of ideas justifying British rule in India

By 1815 in Europe Britain was not only established as a first class power after Britain’s victory over Napoleon and France, but Britain had also undergone the first Industrial Revolution and had emerged as the most industrialised country in the world. Britain’s confidence in being at the top of the world was nowhere better displayed than in British writings on India, a country she dominated and regarded as backward. This attitude is reflected in the historical writings of the British from the second decade of the nineteenth century.

the practice of writing about the colonial countries by the colonial officials was related to the desire for domination and justification of the colonial rule. Therefore, in most such historical works there was criticism of Indian society and culture. At the same time, there was praise for the western culture and values and glorification of the individuals who established the empire in India

a) 18^th century approach - ORIENTAL HISTORIOGRAPHY

b) 19^th century approach - UTILITARIAN HISTORIOGRAPHY

ORIENTAL HISTORIOGRAPHY

James Princep – essay on Indian antiquities, W. Wilkins – Hindu god and goddes, Modern Hinduism, William Jones – Hitopadesha, Bhagwat Geeta, Kalidas-abhigyan shakuntalam, geet govind, manusmriti

Introduction :

Western scholarly discipline of the 18th and 19th centuries that encompassed the study of the languages, literatures, religions, philosophies, histories, art, and laws of Asian societies, especially ancient ones. Such scholarship also inspired broader intellectual and artistic circles in Europe and North America, and so Orientalism may also denote the general enthusiasm for things Asian or “Oriental.” Orientalism was also a school of thought among a group of British colonial administrators and scholars who argued that India should be ruled according to its own traditions and laws, thus opposing the “Anglicanism” of those who argued that India should be ruled according to British traditions and laws

In this sort of approach, they generally consider greatness in ancient Indian history. They eulogize Ancient Indian History but considered contemporary Indian history as backward. They considered stagnant and fall in Greatness of India and pointed to failure towards industralization of India.

criticism and decline of oriental appraoch

1. it was seen as the product of the British Imperialism

2. Indian society was seen as static and undeveloped and western society is developed, rational, flexible and superior. Hence oriental culture can be studied and depicted and reproduced in the service of imperial power.

3. It was the duty of imperialistic Britain to teach and develop its colonies through various technological advancement.

4. The oriental approach with its image of sensuous, inscrutable and wholly spritual India died out in serious scrutiny.

5. Prejudice that Indians are iliterate and backward.

Ques. Why did British officer study Indian History ?

Ans : To established efficient and capable administration and for that the officers should be trained of Indian Past, culture and society, economy, religion.

Ques. How did they study Indian History ?

Ans : The Method they employed initially to study Indian History is known as colonial historiography it was soon replaced by Utilitarian Historigraphy.

UTILITARIAN HISTORIOGRAPHY

During 19^th century a new group of historical thinkers evolved which was result of the British Industrial revolution. There was huge revolution in almost all fields of the British scenario ranging from politics, economy, culture and society and its effect on Thinkers and philosophers. There were efforts to give legalize the colonial rule. The same change was implemented in understanding Indian contexts.

Till now the rule in India was govern indirectly by the east India company but due the need of industrial revolution indirect rule was not very helpful, a greater control of India was needed for exploitation of raw resources as well as development of consumer market for the British made goods. Thus during this period the compnay rule was over and the British Government took control directly.

They denied already in vogue oriental view, Their claim was that whatever was said in oriental approach about Indian past was not correct, it was over glorified which was not exact. Their aim was not to glorify Indian past which may have negative repercussion for the health of the British rule in India as it will let people have feeling of proud on self and they will demand for selfrule. Indians should be tought that they are backward, uncivilized BY Denying Indian ethics, character, Indian culture, Indian achievement. And in this case Utilitarian political philosophy represented Britain’s role to be that of a guardian with a backward pupil as his ward. The British Goverment was here to make Indians civilized and literate towards modern science, technology and philosophy.

However, with the discovery of Indus valley civilization a new urban culture of anitquity came into existence in ancient India and add a new chapter in the history of India. But the British historian could not grasped this already developed culture to its Indian colony, they tried to connect this culture with the part extention of Mesopotamian culture and denied any direct connection with India.

However, nationalist historian brought out the Kautilya Arthashastra, which gave a clear evidence for existence of politics and states.

• In 1920s David Dodwell’s rhetoric is milder, indeed almost in a dejected

tone: the Sisyphian task of the British was to raise to a higher level the “great mass of

humanity” in India and that mass “always tended to relapse into its old posture …like a

rock you try to lift with levers.”

a.) Liberalist version, b.) Christian Humanism version

• between 1806 and 1818, James Mill wrote a series of volumes

on the history of India and this work had a formative influence on British imagination

about India. The book was entitled History of British India, but the first three volumes

included a survey of ancient and medieval India while the last three volumes were

specifically about British rule in India. This book became a great success, it was reprinted

in 1820, 1826 and 1840 and it became a basic textbook for the British Indian Civil

Service officrs undergoing training at the East India’s college at Haileybury.

James Mill, whose book History of India (1818-23) set the parameters for historywriting on India, was contemptuous towards the Indian society. He considered the precolonial Indian civilisation as backward, superstitious, stagnant and lacking in most respects as a civilisation. He was an unabashed admirer of the British achievements in India and relentless critic of pre-British Indian society and polity. He divided the Indian history into three parts – the Hindu, the Muslim and the British. This division, according to him, was essential to demarcate three different civilisations.

Mill has criticized Ancient India comparing it in various aspect with contemporary Greek and Roman culture, obviously by his time not much of the archaeological sites had been excavated. Mill had never been to India and the entire work was written on the basis of his limited readings in books by English authors on India. It contained a collection of the prejudices about India and the natives of India which many British officers acquired in course of their stay in India.

Reason 1 Mill’s history of India was also at the same time

implicitly an Utilitarian agenda for British administration in India

Reason 2 This book perfectly reflected the cast of mind which developed in

the wake of Britain’s victory in the Anglo-French wars for hegemony in Europe, and

Britain’s growing industrial prosperity.

Mountstuart Elphistone is more difficult to categorise in terms

of philosophical affiliation. Elphinstone was a civil servant in India for the greater part of

his working life and he was far better equipped and better informed than Mill to write a

history of India. His work History of Hindu and Muhammedan India (1841) became

a standard text in Indian universities

a more professionally proficient history was produced in the 1860s by J. Talboys Wheeler. The latter wrote a comprehensive History of India in five volumes published between 1867 and 1876, and followed it up with a survey of India Under British Rule (1886).

History of India by Vincent Smith who stands nearly at the end of a long series of British Indian civil servant historians. In 1911 the last edition of Elphinstone’s history of ‘Hindu and Muhammedan India’ was published and in the same year Vincent Smith’s comprehensive history, building upon his own earlier research in ancient Indian history and the knowledge accumulated by British researchers in the decades since Elphinstone,

Vincent Smith’s The Oxford History of India (1919) provided another break in Indian

historiography as it avoided the sharp value judgments and contemptuous references to

the pre-British period of Indian history contained in Mill’s book. He instead tried to

present a chronological account of Indian history and focused on the rise and fall of

dynasties.

a,) liberalistic version

in 1934. This work, Rise and Fulfilment of British

Rule in India was different from all the previously mentioned books in that it was written

from a liberal point of view, sympathetic to Indian national aspirations to a great extent.

The authors were Edward Thompson who was a Missionary and G.T. Garratt,

a civil servant in India for eleven years

Lord macaulay : - Biography type history of different viceroys and their administration.

Sir Henry Maine’s :-His Ancient Law (1861)

and his work on Indian village communities were path-breaking works in history. Maine

changed the course of European thinking on the development of law by looking at laws

and institutions beyond the domain of Roman law.

Edmund bruke : - Law , W. H. Moreland: - economy,

Some common conception in all British writers

1. An Orientalist representation of India, promoting the idea of superiority of modern western civilisation.

2. The Idea that India had no unity until the British unified the country was common prominence in historical narratives. 18^th century India was a dark country. Full of chaos and barbarity.

3. History is a struggle between various people, races, cultures and the British are on the top, superior and fit to rule.

4. India was stagnant society, under developed, only the British rule could show path of progress to higher level

5. Heroic empire builders and Rulers of India in historical narratives was part of the rhetoric of imperialism.

6. Initially showed their despise towards Indian nationalist movement but in later period showed much more sophisticated varion showing affinity towards their cause.

Indians had, in contrast to Europeans, always lacked a feeling of nationality and therefore of national unity, – Indians had always been divided

Indians, they said, had also lacked a democratic tradition. While Europeans had enjoyed the democratic heritage of ancient Greece and Rome,

Indians also lacked the quality of innovation and creativity

history as a means of establishing cultural hegemony and legitimising British rule over India.

 

BENEFIT OF COLONIAL HISTORIOGRAPHY

the colonial historians laid the foundations of historiography according to methodology developed in modern Europe,

their contribution was also substantial in providing in institutions like the Asiatic Society and Archaeological Survey of India

opportunity for Indian historians to obtain entry into the profession and into academic research.

Further, despite an ethnocentric and statist bias, the data collected by the British colonial historians as well as the practice of archiving documents was and remains an important resource. Most important of all, the teaching of history began from the very inception of the first three universities in India at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras (1857-1858). This had several unintended consequences.

NATIONALISTIC HISTORIOGRAPHY (19^th – 20^th )

Keeping in view the national interests. Indian nationalist/scholars Social upliftment and freedom movement more focused

Nationalist approach to Indian history may be described as one which tends to contribute to the growth of nationalist feeling and to unify people in the face of religious, caste, or linguistic differences or class differentiation.

as colonial historical narrative became negative or took a negative view of India’s political and social development, and, in contrast, a justificatory view of colonialism, a nationalist reaction by Indian historians came.

Just as the Indian nationalist movement developed to oppose colonialism, so did nationalist historiography develop as a response to and in confrontation with colonial historiography and as an effort to build national self-respect in the face of colonial denigration of Indian people and their historical record. , Indians often relied in their reply on earlier European interpretations While the utilitarians and missionaries condemned Indian culture, the Orientalists emphasised the character of India as a nation of philosophers and spiritual people. While this characterisation bore the marks of praise, the accompanying corollary was that Indians had historically lacked political, administrative and economic acumen or capacity.

The nationalistic shcolars hailed the discovery in the beginning of the 20th century of Arthashastra by Kautilya and said that it proved that Indians were equally interested and proficient in administration, diplomacy and economic management by the state.

Many also denied the dominant influence of religion on the state and asserted the latter’s secular character.

They also contradicted the view that ancient Indian state was autocratic and despotic. The Kings in ancient India dispensed justice to all, strong presence of the popular element in the state and went even so far as to say that in many cases the political structure approached that of modern democracies. In any case, all of them argued that government was not irresponsible and capricious.

Very often the existence of local self-governments was asserted and the example of democratically elected village panchayats was cited. A few writers went so fare as to talk of the existence of assemblies and parliaments and of the cabinet system, as under Chandra, Gupta, Akbar and Shivaji.

K. P. JAYASWAL In his Hindu Polity, published in 1915, he argued that the ancient Indian political system was either republican or that of constitutional monarchy.

Nationalist historians countered the colonial view by claiming that cultural, economic and political unity and a sense of Indian nationhood had prevailed in pre-colonial India. Kautilya, for example, they said, had advocated in the Arthashastra the need for a national king.

SOME DEFICIENCY IN NATIONALIST VIEWS

1. The nationalists wrote approvingly of India’s culture and social structure. BUT THEY SHOWED underplayed caste oppression, social and economic denigration of the lower castes, and male domination

2. while rightly emphasising India’s contribution to the development of civilisation in the world, they tended to underplay the impact of other cultures and civilisations on India’s development.

3. Nearly all achievements of the Indian people in different areas of human endeavour were associated with the ancient period

4. It was Hindu culture and social structure in its Sanskritic and Brahmanical form that was emphasised.

5. Glorification of the past tended to merge with communalism and, later, with regionalism

Nationalists historians of medieval India repeated more or less the entire nationalist approach towards ancient Indian history. In particular, they emphasised the development of a composite culture in Northern India as a result of interaction among Hindus and Muslims both at the level of the common people and the elite. They also denied the colonial-communal assertion that Muslim rulers remained foreigners even after settling down in the country or that they were inherently oppressive or more so than their predecessors or counterparts in the rest of the world

A.S Altekar, R. C. Majumdar, K. P. Jayaswal, R.G. Bhandarkar, B. R. Bhandarkar, Hem Chandra Raichaudhury, K. A. Nilakanta Sastri

MARXIST HISTORIOGRAPHY (20^th )

1917 Russian revolution, inspired from Karl Marx and new approach of studying history was developed which was mainly based on economy. They give preference to change and event based on Economy.

A lot of historians either come directly within its fold or have been influenced by it in certain degrees. It has also influenced most of the trends of Indian historiography in some way or the other. India Today by R. Palme Dutt and Social Background of Indian Nationalism by A.R. Desai.

It comprehensively covers most aspects of Indian society, economy and politics under colonial rule. It applies Marxist analysis to various developments in the colonial economy, to the problems of peasantry, to the national movement and to the communal problems.

Kosambi viewed history completely differently. For him, Mill’s religious periodisation and Smith’s chronological accounts of dynasties were of no value. He believed that the ‘Society is held together by bonds of production’. Thus he defines history ‘as the presentation, in chronological order, of successive developments in the means and relations of production’. This, according to him, is ‘the only definition known which allow a reasonable treatment of pre-literate history, generally termed “pre-history”’ He further argues that history should be viewed in terms of conflict between classes :

history as ‘dialectical materialism, also called Marxism after its founder’. considered Marxism as a method which could be usefully applied for the study of Indian society and history. he explained it as a result of the non-existence of the slave mode of production in the preceding period. He further differentiated between two types of feudalism in India – ‘feudalism from above’ and ‘feudalism from below’

Kosambi declined asiatic mode of production and slavery in marxism but he accepted feudalism but not serfdom.

D. D. Koshambi, R. S. Sharma, Romila Thapar, Irfan Habib, Muhammad Habib, D. N. Jha, Harwansh Mukhiya, Bipin Chandra,

HEGEL AND MARX HISTORY

Marx's view of history has both the strength and the weakness of Hegel's: its strength, in penetrating behind the facts to the logical nexus of underlying concepts; its weakness, in selecting one aspect of human life (in Hegel the political, in Marx the economic) as in this sense fully rational by itself. Marx, like Hegel, insisted that human history is not a number of different parallel histories, economic, political, artistic, religious, and so on, but one single history. But like Hegel, again, he conceived this unity not as an organic unity in which every thread of the developing process preserved its own continuity as well as its intimate connexion with the others, but as a unity in which there was only one continuous thread (in Hegel the thread of political history, in Marx that of economic history), the other factors having no continuity of their own but being, for Marx, at every point in their development mere reflections of the basic economic fact. This committed Marx to the paradox that if certain people held, for example, certain philosophical views, they had no philosophical reasons for holding them, but only economic reasons. Historical studies of politics, of art, of religion, of philosophy, constructed on this principle, can have no real historical value; they are mere exercises in ingenuity where,

History, as the actions in which man expressed his thoughts, had the general outlines of its structure laid down for it in advance by the conditions under which the thinking activity, mind, alone can exist. Among these conditions are the two following: first, that mind should arise within and continue to inhabit a world of nature; secondly, that it should work by apprehending those necessities which lie behind nature. Accordingly, the historical activities of man, as activities that take place or go on, take place or go on in a natural environment, and could not go on otherwise; but their 'content', i.e. what in particular people think and what in particular people do by way of expressing this thought, is determined not by nature but by the 'ideas', the necessities studied by logic. Thus logic is the key to history, in the sense that men's thoughts and actions, as studied by history, follow a pattern which is the coloured version of the pattern logic has already drawn in black and white.

This is what Marx was thinking of when he said he had turned Hegel's dialectic upside down. When he made that statement, what he had in mind was history, perhaps the only thing in which Marx was much interested. And the point of his remark was that whereas for Hegel, because logic came before nature, it was for logic to determine the pattern on which history worked, and for nature only to determine the environment in which it worked, for Marx himself nature was more than the environment of history, it was the source from which its pattern was derived.

What Marx was doing was to reassert the fundamental principle of eighteenth-century historical naturalism, the principle that historical events have natural causes.

PROBLEMS AND REMEDIES OF INDIAN HISTORIOGRAPHY :

Two conception of ancient Indian History :

1. There was lack of sense of Historical sense and Indians were indifferent towards recording historical events.

2. There was a sense of History writing since antiquity (nationalist views), according to G. C. Pandey Indians never underestimated negligible, Indians always remember its great personalities and rich history.

1. Indians lacked in historical worldview/temperament, Western view : There was not a historian like Histories of Herodotus, historical work of Thucydides or the History of Polybious of Greece or the Annals of Livy or Tacitus of Rome.

2. Alberuni was the first to remark that “The Hindus do not pay much attention to the historical order of things, they are very careless in relating the chronological succession of their kings, and when they are pressed for information and are at a loss, not knowing what to say, they invariably take to tale-tellings

3. S.R.Sharma in an attempt to justify the statement of Alberuni writes that his “ version of the lack of historical sense of Indians justified by the paucity of historical works properly so called in our country down from ancient times.

4. A.K.Majumdar asserts that “…. We can’t admit that the Hindus had incapacity for writing history and our ancestors have not bequeathered to us any reliable historical work for early period. They know the simple art of writing history

5. L.J.Trotter and W.H. Hutton have remarked that “…the old Hindus produced, not one historian of even the smallest mark

6. H. Beveridge opines that “ With the exception of a work on Kashmir, the literature of India has failed to furnish a single production to which the name of history can in any proper sense of the term be applied

7. A.S Macdonell is of opinion that “History is the one weak spot in Indian Literature. It is, in fact, non-existent.

8. J.W.McCrindle (a popular authority on Ancient India by the classical writers) holds that “ The Indians themselves did not write history. They produced no doubt, a literature both voluminous and varied… but within its vast range history is conspicuous by its absence.

9. R.G.Bhandarkar’s observation, that “India has no real history….the historical curiosity of the peoples was satisfied by legends what we find of a historical nature in the literature of the country before the arrival of the Mahommedans, can also be disposed of.

10. Luis Dickens : Hindus were not Historians. He tried to find the reason behind this in the Indian climate and geographical envionment. According to him, Indian thinking used to consider itself very insignificant and incapable infront of the nature, This gave them feeling of insecurity and uselessness of the life, for them life was a painful dream and a dream doesn't have any history.

11. pierre teilhard de chardin Believe in Karma principle -- over involvement in sprituality This made indians hype inactive and unbiased spirit, is very much clear in their inablitity to construct a world power.

12. Heera nand Shastri – Ancient Indians were less interested in recording their past and present material life than their future life, that is why they didn't pay much attention in recording history.

13. Chandrakant Gajanan Raje : the practise of ignoring chronology can be seen as the ignorance towards historical sense.

14. Prof Shrinivas aiyengar said if dates are eyes of history than we should consider Indian history as blind.

Chronology has always been part of historical sense and Indians have always given it less preference, thus they were always showed indifference in presenting exact chronology when giving any historical event.

Reason :

E.J.Rapson remarks; “We know from other sources that the ages were filled withstirring events; but these events found no systematic record. Of the great foreign invasions of Darius, Alexander the Great and Seleucus no mention is to be discovered in any Indian work. The struggles between native princes, the rise and fall of Empires, have indeed not passed similarly into utter oblivion. The memory is to some extent preserved in epic poems, in stories of the sages and heroes of old, in genealogies and dynastic lists. Such in all countries are the beginning of history; and in ancient India its development was not carried beyond this rudimentary stage.

INDIANS DID HAVE HISTORICAL SENSE (Remedies)

1. A.K Warder, a great authority on Indian historiography, has strongly advocated the historical sense of the ancient Indians. He has presented in his work abundant proofs of historical writings in ancient India. He says that it is superficial misconceptions that ancient India produced little or no historical literature .

2. Girija Shankar Prasad Mishra rejects Louis Dickens claim as untenable, stating that Indian didn't ignore present life. According to him, we find numerous examples to this effect. Even vedas mentions “We have to know the turth here, and have to behave according to Dharma in this world.”

Ancient Indians never considered themselves insignificant and useless infront of the nature. They always developed themselves in accordance with the law of nature.

In every cultures only those things are kept safe for progeny which is considered of utmost importance and valueble. Evidently, the Greeks and Chinese considered Political history as most important and endeavoured to keep it protected. While Indians considered sprituality, Karma and Dharma above all valuebles and emphasized to preserved the texts (Vedas, Brahmanas) pertains to this.

3. Girija Shankar prasad mentions that believe in Karma and Maya led Indians to establish a glorious history, only ignorant of Indian history will talk about the non-achievement of Indian History.

4. Contraditcting the thought of Heeranand Shastri, Girija Shankar Prasad says , There is not country like India who has preserved its longest historical tradtions.

History is divided in two parts 1. Dead History (incidents, personlity), 2. Live History (traditions, cultures)

It is certain that Indians always had feeling of awareness, preservance and accountability for traditions. Thus, Indians were always awared about their past and present and they had conceptio of History writing as a result we see historical texts as per the requirement of time and society.

5. On the view of Chandrakant Gajanan, all historians today agree that history is not only the record of dates. And in modern historiography more focused is on social and economy than political history.

6. Radha Kumud Mookerji has rightly pointed out that “History is not merely political and chronological and is not to individual and datable facts and events.

7. According to scholars the tradtion of history even older than the writing tadition in India. It was first recorded in the form of SHRUTI. Not in written form.

8. Indians were aware of historical writing since antiquity and this is quite visible from their ancient records./literatures.

9. Arthasastra of Kautilya that it was the duty of the Gopa (an official in charge of five or ten village) to keep a record of everything concerning a village including its agricultural products and trade and commerce

10. Kautilya also testifies to the maintenance of the archives in the Maurya court.

11. Hiuen-Tsang testimony of the practice of preserving historical records in India also deserves our notice. He during his stay in the country for about fifteen years (AD 629-45) noticed that its each province had its own state officials for maintaining written record of events.

12. There have been examples of record keeping during Gupta Empire even at regional level (Bhukti). The seals have been found from various places specifically mentions Kumaramatyas post for keeper of records related to revenue and historical incidents, court orders.

13. The existence of the historical chronicle of Kasmir, Gujrat and Nepal support the belief that the royal archives of different states contained such chronicles.

14. It is also believed that some of the ancient annals and other written records were destroyed or tempered with by the Muslims in the course of their invasions of India

15. The inscriptional records also reflect the historical and chronological sense of the ancient times. The inscriptions constitute valuable testimony to historical writings in ancient times .They supply genealogies of the reigning kings and recount their as well as their ancestors’ lives and deeds

Harisena in Allhabad pillar inscription about the conquest and campaigns of his patron, Samudragupta (AD. 335-375) and by Ravikirti in Aihole inscription (AD 634)about the achievements of Pulakesin-II,

Problems of Ancient Indian Historiography

1. Problem of knowledge of script

2. Problem of collection of available material : It is very difficult to collect information from various sources spread across country in different forms.

3. Development of Historical Material : Various written sources available to reconstruct of history but these sources are often conflicting and give varied information which is very difficult talk to get correct information for these soures.

4. Problem of recording process : No compete data available

5. Lack of Chronology : Indian texts often ignored the recording the event chronologically, there is a huge gap in writing of history and due to which chronology of the historical incident became very difficult to acertain.

6. Problem of Imaginary Dynasties: Imaginary divine link of the kings were never questioned with critical thinking

7. Problem of recognition of the places, rivers, mountains : due to thousand years of history name of the place changed frequently which creates a lot of problem while linking with their original names.

8. Different description of one event :

9. Ancient Indian literatures which are seen as the source of history, we do not have exact detail about its authors while in Greek and Chinese tradition we also see the name of authors. This was perhaps ancient Indians always gave preference to writing rather than writers.

10. History is divided in two parts 1. Dead History (incidents, personlity), 2. Live History (traditions, cultures)

11. Decide on Period : Indian philosophy has cenception of cycle of Yuga chakra system which is continuously moving and not static. Krita Yuga, Treta Yuga, Dwapar Yuga, Kali Yuga

12. This continually moving Chakra principle has given Incarnation theory.

    Character stics of Ancient Indian Historiography

    1. Literature of Religious Philosophy

    2. Historiography under Royal Patronage

    3. Spiritual Attitude to written literature

    4. Lack of critical view

    5. Description of Royal court

    6. Emphasis on Idealism

Significant sources of Ancient Indian Historiography :

1 Literary Sources i) Indian records, ii) Foreign Accounts 2 Archaeological Sources

Important Historical Literary Sources

The literary/written sources to reconstruct Ancient Indian history can be

classified among three major categories, (i) Religious, (ii) Secular and (iii) Scientific.

It also comprised of some different kinds of sources like (iv) Sangam literature and

(v) travelogues of foreign travelers.

The literary sources provide the most valuable information about life in India during the ancient age. Beginning from the Vedic age, the life of the Indian subcontinent is known mainly with the help of information provided by literature.

literature is religious to some extent and cosmic to some extent. Hence the literary instrument is divided into two parts-

Religious literature (Dharmik Sahitya)

Cosmic literature (Laukik Sahitya) secular

RELIGIOUS LITERATURE

Brahmin Literature

Vedas

Brahmic Literature and Upnishads (Vedang – Shiksha, Jyothish, Vyakarana, Chhand, Kala, Nirukta) Sutras – Kalpasutra, Grihasutra, Dharmasutras

Ramayana Mahakavya

Mahabharata Itihasa

Purana

Buddh and Jain Literature

Non-Brahmin Literature as Literary Sources

Buddhist literature

Jain literature

SECULAR LITERATURE (COSMIC)

Historical Works

Semi-Historical Works

Religious Books – Vedic, Puranas, Epics etc

Buddhist Texts – Tripitika Used of Pali languages

Jainistic Texts – Koshas in Jainism

Secular Texts – Arthashastra, Nitisara, Dramas like MalvikaAgnimitra, DeviChandragupta, MudraRakshasa, Amarkosha

Biographies – Vikramdev, prithviraj Vijaya, Harsha Charita, Rajatarangini, Buddhacharitam

IMPORTANCE OF LITERATURE AS THE SOURCE OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY

The literary sources such as Arthshastra and Nitisara throw light on political-administrative life in detail. statecraft

Arthshastra was written by Kautilya, the Prime Minister of Chandragupta Maurya. He wrote about the institutions of the Mauryan empire and the function performed by various officials. Arthashastra describes various types of taxes, trade routes, and occupations of the age.

Nitisara was written by Kamandakiya, Prime Minister of Chandragupt 1st, in 4th-century AD.

The literary sources throw light on social-cultural life is well.

Sources like Vedas and Dharma Shastra deal with social Institutions and their functions.

The economic life of ancient is also revealed by literary sources.

The Sangam literature informs about economic life in Tamil Land during the early centuries of the Christian Era.

The foreign accounts left behind by Greek-Roman, Chinese and Arab writers also throw light on the economic life of the ancient age.

The religious life of the ancient age is understood primarily with the help of literary sources. Beginning from the Vedic age, an immense amount of literature is available to understand religious Institutions and practices.

Literary sources like Charaka Samhita on Ayurveda, Sushruta Samhita on medicine and surgery, Aryabhatiyam of Aryabhata, and Siddhanth Shiromani of Bhāskara II throw light on progress in the field of science and technology during the ancient age.

The nature and character of India’s relation with the outside world can also be inferred with the help of information provided by literary sources.

Megasthenes was Bactria (trans-oxiana) Ambassador in the court of Chandragupta Maurya. He wrote about the relationship of Maurya king with Seleucus Nicator.

The wars and battles fought by Indian rulers, the territorial extent of their Empire, rise, and fall of various political entities as well as changes in characters of the Indian political system can also be comprehended on basis of information provided by literary sources.

Banabhatt wrote in detail about the military achievements of king Harshvardhan.

LIMITATION OF LITERARY AS SOURCE

No literary sources of any kind are available prior to the Vedic age.

The literary sources don’t provide any information about the stone age and the chalcolithic period.

In this way, more than 99% of the humans’ history of the Indian subcontinent can’t be reconstructed with the help of literary sources.

The literary sources lack a true historical character. The writer did not pay any attention to chronology. The development has been described as more likely a story.

The literary sources are not available on a continuous basis.

Very few literary sources are available between the post-Mauryan-pre gupta period.

Hardly anything is known from literature about the dynasty of the Satavahanas, Nagas and Tribals like Malava, Yaudheyas, Kushanas

The literary sources are prone to politicization. At the time it difficult to comprehend whether the entire literary work belongs to a particular period or a different time period.

It is believed that much information found in Vedas added later on. Some chapters of Arthashastra composed during the Gupta age by a person named Vishnu Gupta.

The literary sources suffer from the personal bias of Writers.

Most of the writers lived in court under the patronage of the king. Such Court poets can’t be expected to present an unbias picture of the achievement and failure of their patron.

Banabhatt, the court poet of Harsha, wrote in detail about Harshas’s achievement, but he did not mention Harsha’s failure.

Most of the literary sources used in the reconstruction of early India’s history are religious work, secular literary sources are very few.

The literary sources deal primarily with the elite class. the focus of writers was generally limited to court, Palace, and life of nobility.

Hardly anything is known about the life of common people.

The literary sources represent the only history from above, history from below is missing in Literature.

At times, the language of literary sources is weak, as a result of this, these sources have interpreted quite differently by different scholars.

Puranas were written in the future tense. The time period of many literary sources is not known precisely.

The information provided by Ramayana and Mahabharata covers a long period. The source like Rig Veda covers 500 period years.

Some historians believe that Chanakya lived in the Gupta period and Kalidas lived in Mauryan age because these sources’ dates are not mentioned.

Many dimensions of human life such as technological progress in the quality of life can’t be easily inferred on basis of information provided by literary sources. A true estimation of these dimensions can be carried out only by having look at ground realities.

VEDIC TRADITION OF HISTORY WRITING :

A general perception is that ancient Hindu culture begins with the composition of Vedas. This perhaps is a corret statement since we do not have any source of information about The Hindus before Vedas. In that case vedas can safely be regarded as the record of Hindu beginning since they are the only source available with us of such antiquity.

and If we regard, recording of some important events as we have discussed earlier as part of history, the earliest examples come from the Rigveda (dated around 1400 BCE), which is considered earliest among all scriptures. Rigveda is collection of total 1028 hymns composed by various sages arrange in 10 mandalas.

These hymns were passed down over centuries through oral traditions, it comprised of contemporary persons, Aryan cultures, settlement, historical incidents, geographical information and other subjects.

However, there are some difficulty with Vedas. There is no chronological setting, by nature these records give very little information about any incident to say as useful.

Louis Renou has correctly stated that some of the Rgvedic hymns are “historical”. They contain the “rudiments of history”.

Adolf Kaegi also observes that these hymns were composed “with the intention of protecting the heritage of ancestral times from further corruption and from destruction; and the “Rgveda is therefore, to an extent, a scientific, historical collection.

We have in these hymns writes L. Geiger, the picture of an original, primitive life of mankind, free from Foreign influences. They are not narration of events, but provide incidental evidence on the life of the Aryans. They can be treated as being historically fairly authentic, since their composition was contemporary with the period described.

Muir calls the Rgveda a “historic veda” Its historical value as the most ancient record of the Aryans has been acknowledged by a number of scholars.

A.A. Macdonell describes it as a “unique monument of a long vanished age” and further adds that it contains some materials of historical interest.

According to F. Max Muller, the Veda is the earliest history of the Aryan family. It is the safe basis of Indian history

U.N. Ghoshal has clearly stated that the oldest Indian historical tradition is preserved in the Vedic literature

F. E. Pargiter admits that the Rgveda, which is the oldest and the greatest Brahmanical book, “contains historical allusions, of which some record contemporary persons and events, but more refers to bygone times and persons and is obviously based on tradition.

The fours Vedas throw light on life-ways of Vedic Aryans. We come to know

that, when the Aryans, initially were settled in Saptasindhu region, their life-style

was different. The second to ninth mandala of Rig-Veda tells us about this. But when

they migrated to more eastern part of their actual location, and came into contact

with other communities, we find drastic changes in their life-ways. The first and

10the mandala of Rig-Veda and other three Vedas inform such change. Hence, to

understand Vedic Aryans, we have to think in two parts: Early Vedic and Later

Vedic.

Texts includes of Vedic tradition

1. Four Vedas (Rigved, Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda)

2. Brahmanas

3. Aranyakas

4. Upanishadas

Apart from this, there are six vedangs – 

1. Shiksha (education)

2. Jyotish (astrology)

3. Kalpa

4. Vyakaran (grammar)

5. Nirukta

6. Chhand (verses)

We get four forms of History writing from Vedic literature

1. Danastuti

2. Gotra

3. Pravara

4. Gatha Narasamsi

ITIHASA PURANA TRADITION OF HISTORY WRITING (5^th Veda as per chandogya upanishada)

1. Gatha – verse prose

2. Katha – story telling

3. Purana – Ancient lores to tales of primeval antiquity or ancient stories whether quasi-historical, mythological or fanciful.

4. Akhyana - dialogue

5. Narasamsi – Praise of individuals

6. Itihasa – Historical events

Various legendary and historical accounts of the events of the past or primordial events of mankind have been incorporated in the Itihasa and Purana. The earliest form of Itihasa based on real or oral tradition emerged in the Vedic age. The written records of the tradition appeared much later. The written form of history began with written tradition. The literature of both Vedic and Post-Vedic times contains the rudiments of history

The hymns reflect a society of clans organized into chiefdoms.

1. The clan was a kin-based unit of agro-pastoralists,

2.Relatively egalitarian but accepting the authority of a chief—the raja—who was selected by the clan.

3. The chief protected the territory of the clan, captured fresh pasture lands, conducted raids, distributed the booty, and was often the patron of the sacrificial ritual.

4. These were the required qualities of the hero, and continued to be in demand into later times.

The hymns of the Rigveda in various incidental ways recorded relations of friendship or hostility between clans.

1. Hostility often took the form of skirmishes. But a more serious confrontation was when Sudas defended himself against a confederacy of ten other clans. .

2. There is some information on kinship links between individuals, although genealogical depth is small and does not exceed five generations.

Rituals that bestow status on Rajas were the Abhiseka, Rajasuya, Ashvamedha, and Vajapeya, intended for consecration, claims to conquest and sovereignty, and rejuvenation, and described in the texts subsequent to the Rigveda. The rajas that performed these rituals in previous times are listed, and this became the remembered past — part history and part legend.

The politics of heroism were highly competitive, and remained so until chieftainship

became hereditary or was mutated into kingship. The retelling of the narrative by the Brahman. as came to imply authenticity.

Fragmentary narratives of heroes and clans were common currency and part of a large floating oral tradition, probably maintained by bards. Some remained separate entities, as in the Buddhist Jataka collection. Others were stitched together in epic forms such as the Mahabharata and the Ramayan.

Historical Information from Vedic Literature

1. The Rgveda contains a lot of historical data about the life and culture of the Aryans.

2. It is this text from which we learn that the Aryans were originally settled in the territory lying along the rivers, Kubha (Kabul), Suvastu (Swat), Krumu (Kurram), Gomati (Gomal) and Hariyupia (Hariruda of Heart) in Afghanistan and the Sindhu

3. the five rivers of the Punjab on the west and the Sarasvati on the east called the Sapta-Sindhu region (the land of seven rivers).

4. There are some indications in the text about their original settlements in Balhika or Bahlika region (the Vamksu Valley) also.

5. The allusions to the rivers – the Ganga and the Yamuna – in the text indicate that they were partly settled in the Gangetic doab

6. The information contained in the text about the social system, economic condition, political organization and religious and cultural life of the Aryans,

7. their internal divisions, mutual hostility and conflicts with the non-Aryans, inter tribal warfare, the Dasas or Dasyus,

8. the five allied Aryan peoples, viz. Anus, Druhyus, Yadus, Turvasas and Purus who were the dwellers of the sapta-Sindhu region

9. V

10. the Battle of ten kings also finds mention in the text. This great battle was fought on the river parusni or Ravi in which Sudas, king of the Bharats, defeated with the help of Indra the confederate peoples led by ten kings

11. The Rgveda refers to some important kings like Manu, the son of Vivasvana Iksvaku , the dynastic history of which is available in the Ramayana and Purana, Pururava Karusravana, who is identical with Samvarana’s son Kuru mentioned in the Mahabharata and Puranas, Nahusa and his son and successor, Yajati.

12. Divodasa, Mudgala, Srnjaya, Cyavana and his son Sudasa and one of his descendants named Somaka who were the rulers of North Pancala kingdom

For exampe in vedas we get some Gatha and Narasamsi in the form of

1. Parikshit Janmejaya Gatha

2. Shun – shepa

3. Pururva and Urvashi dialogue

4. Bharat-dushyant

5. Sakuntala Gatha

DANASTUTI

Rig Veda contains Danastutis. These were composed by the recipients, priests, and usually mention the name of the donor. The information is very vitals since, these donors may not be the ordinary people, They could have been powerful clan leaders, kings or noble men.

Examples :

1. May he, Asanga's Son, Svanadratha, obtain all joy and happiness

2. Skilled is Yadu's son in giving precious wealth, he who is rich in herds of cattle

3. Danastuti in 8 Mandala gives detail about applaud of King trasadasyu by Saubhari Kanva Rishi.

A. As we see, the recipient acknowledges the gifts he receives and prays for the well being of the donor. Such acknowldgements or proclamations were a part of major rituals such as ashwamedha, vajpeya etc. Hence, we come to know about the major sacrifices and rituals being an important part in vedic period and record of the important event such as the victory over opponents.

B. It is however, worth noticing that why would these incidents get recorded?

This suggests that only what was regarded as positive or desirable from the point of view of the Brahmin or the Kshatriya would find a place in such eulogies. Other activities or failures would tend to be glossed over or even effaced from the memory because, those responsible for the records were the sponsors/patrons and the Brahmins.

C. One may also observe that the recalling the generosity and prowess of the patron/sponsor was not meant to be a simple recounting but was infact meant to ensure the continue patronage from the sponsors.

D. In return, the Kshatriya position gets legitimised, and he was promised with the possiblity of a place in heaven, blessed with power, strength and glory.

According to Romila Thapar, "Lauding the hero and the gift-giving as an act of patronage were to remain in tandem. The gift, symbolic of success and status, provided a precedent for future occasions, and became a bond between the giver and the recipient."

Gatha (epic song verses)

The Gathas first emerged in the Rig Veda last mandalas, and atharvaveda as least important distince but allied type of composition. continued as a floating mass of literature which point to the existence of leterary genres of historical nature.

1. Famous for its brevity and expression of feelings.

2. Not intended for the descriptive representation of past.

3. They focused on a an important event of the past and more than that they used to glorify the heroes associated with them. eg. successful raids or cattle raids or victory over the enemy.

4. Simplicity of the language reveal the origin of the gathas from the humble oridnary people.

5. The Indra songs in the form of stutis which form a considerable portion of the Vedas illustrate this. eg. described as the leader of battles, Having plundered booty from Vriraya.

    The Gathas were recited on occasions of performance of rituals, particularly Ashwameda scrifice. The leaders sang and other followed. They were regarded as the legends of gods and heroes. The Brahmins of the sacrifice glorified the generosity of the princes while the Kshatriya extols the heroic deeds of the princes. Daily for the enitre year the horse of Ashwamedha is away in the extol of the sacrificer and the earlier great kings. Satapatha Brahamana and Shrauta Sutra and Aittereya Brahmana sings Gatha in favour of Janamejaya Parikshita. Gatha of Kraivya panchala King. Gatha of King Dushyanata of Bharata Race.

Gatha in praise of the kings and sacrifice

Gatha in praise of the King and the Gods – Maruta Gatha.

Gatha in praise of the Gods only. - Indra gatha

Asandivant as capital of janmejaya, Parivakra as capital of Panchala, Nadapit as the birth place of Bharata have given us information about geographical history.

NARASAMSI

Regarded as the songs in praise of human heroes.

The genesis of Narasamsi was from family traditions which narrated the victories of a few individuals.

The powerful Anarya (Non-Aryan) groups who controlled the land and resources.

There were occasions of encounters and conflicts with the expansion of the Aryan settlements.

The songs of victories which existed among the non kshatriya gorups were interwoven with the family tradition of Aryans in the heroic songs of later ages which are designated as Narasamshis.

The heroic traditions associated with Jarasandha, Kamsa, Shishupala and the victory of Gandharvas over Duryodhana and Karna.

Like Gathas iteration was an imporatant feature of narasamshi. They were in poetic forms. The heroic songs Narsamshi were recited on occation of ritual sacrifices like Ashwameda and Rajasuya. the refernce to raja and their families afflication with Jana, the priest and the locale of the sacrifices.

Later crystallized in the notion of Vamsa which came to be associated with rulers. here songs underwent several additions and hence numerous version existed to suit various occasions.

Example :

PurushaMedha Sacrifice 10 Narasamshi in series

Sudra's son successfully claiming Brahmanahood

Sunahsepa's induction into the clan of high status Viswamitra and release from sacrificial yoke.

Kakshiwant gets gift from his patron.

Vashistha gets priestship from kind Sudas

Historical values of Gatha and Narasamshi ?

1. Courtly exaggeration of the patrons.

2. Precurser of Epic history. Eulogize the achievement of historical kings

3. Gives detail of historical personality, their incidents and also name of the places and rivers, cities, mountains.

AKHYANA

The origin of Akhyana is traced to the dialogue hymns of Rigveda.

This refers to some dramatic mode of delivery, a mode of transmission that originated from the tribal songs. So it was treated as an improvisation of Tribal songs.

The Akhyana first appeared in Rigveda in the some examples like Shuna Seha dialogue and Punarnava Akhyana.

According to dr. Oldenburg, Rigvedia Akhyana were mixed of Prose and verses, later this kind of style was known as Champu Style.

Dr. Winternitz classify their origin in ancient tribal story telling which gradually became part of Rigvedic traditions The structure of Akhyana made it a specific genre it developed out of the elements of oral and dramatic conditions which combined songs and dialogues.. Dr. V. S. Pathak attributed the origin of later Dramas and Epics to these Akhyanas. Some examples of which we find in later literatures. Dialogues in the stories of Krishna, Duryaodhana and Arjuna seeking help from Krishna in Mahabharata are regarded as indicating to the literary form of Akhyana.

Tendency to incorporate religios ideas. Elements of Aristrocratic values. Kinship relations, memories of heroic deeds of ancestors, archaic traits in the form of myth.

Some Examples of Akhyana :

1. Ambopakhyanam

2. Samjayopakhyanam

3. Nalopakhyanam

4. Manthapalopkhyanam

5. Mahabharatas,

6. Puranas - story telling of Rishis to Narada.

Akhyana is Devasuram, - narrates the war between gods and demons.

later the Akhyanas were asssimilated in the itihas purana tradition

AKHYAYIKA

It is first mentioned in taittriya Aranyaka, Katyayan tells us it is a moral story. Patanjali mentions 3 akhyayikas. eg. Vasavadatta, Amarakosha makes commentary on Akhayika and clarified its symptom and objective. Akhyayika is based on true events, gives the detail of true incidents.

Akhyayika is telling of historical achievement of deeds by the protagonist himself.

Works in Prose, generally, prose romances etc. Such prose Kavya

Akhyayika, almost a non-fiction, historical narrative recounting the deed of Kings and heroes of old (e.g. Harshacharita of Banabhatta).

A distinction between historical and fictional genres (Akhyayika and Katha) was drawn as early as Bhamaha (seventh century), who contrasts Katha (imaginary tales) narratives with Akhyayika “that celebrate the real events of gods and others”.

These traditional categories often overlap each other. Historical facts were often treated as malleable material that could be molded in any manner to suit the desired impact of the text. Such supposedly historical narratives generally dealt with the contemporary Kings and their ancestors composed under Royal patronage; and, such Courtly works were meant, mainly, to please the patrons.

In many parts of the Puranas, historical event is described as by the first person himself.

Vamsa and Vamsacharitas (geneology)

The word is found in the sense of "line of teachers",

Vamsha : Samaveda school mentions of Vamsa Brahmana consist of 60 names starts with Vaisharava to the Kashyapa, jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana mentions of two oVamsha lists 1. Brahmana to Vaipashachita Drdhajayanti Gupta lauhitya 53 names. 2. Indra to Sudatta Prasharaya 14 names., Brihadaranayaka Upanishad mentions 2 lists. 1. Pautimashya to Brahman 58 Names and 2. Kanva Brahmins list of 50 and 48 names, Sankhyana Aranyaka of Rigveda menions of Guakhya Shankhyana to Brahamana list of Vamsha

All Vamsha are linked with Indra, Vayu, Agni, Brahmana. According to Max Muller These list ahve high degree of historical probability the individual teachers are often cited as authorities on varioius parts of the rituals List of Vamsha are contained in later portio nof Samaveda Brahmana & Sathapatha brahamana

Gotra It occures in Atharvaveda texts where it clearly means a group of Men connected together by blood. Gotra is generally the name of first ancestor with remarkable personality, who was also part of an authority on Vedic sutras, the family has been known for generations after his name.

PRAVARAS : Reference to Pravara under the name Arshaya and to Pravara sages are found in soem texts of Rigvedas. This was systematic lists of Gotras and Pravaras make their appearance in the later Shrauta Sutras.

This constituted by the sage or sages who lived in the remotest past who were most illustrious and who are generally the ancestors of gotra sages or in some case remotest ancestor alone.

genealogy and family tree in the Shatapatha Brahmana, as well as in Sanskrit grammar text Ashtadhyayi by Pāṇini.

A related genre of Indic literature is the Charita, which focuses on individual hagiographies

The information gathered from various Gathas and Akhyanas compiled and dynastic list of the various clans or kings were garnered from vedic literatures and wrote in a separate and systematised framework of vamsa and vamsanucharita.

By the end of the later vedic period a massive tradition of itihas purana had come into force. These Vamsa and dynastic record compiled into separate section and projected as vansacharita enumerating deeds of the various kings of the family.

The Purana genre of Hindu literature includes genealogies just like Buddhist texts. Each Purana describes about Vamsa(lineage) and Vamsanucharita(accounts of kings and sages). Two common mythical lineages are called Surya-vamsa and Chandra-vamsa, solar (son-based) and lunar (daughter-based) lineages of kings, families and communities of current manvantara and it begins from Vaivasvata Manu (an imagenary period in further past).

The Harivamsa is the legendary genealogy of Yadavas and story of the Hindu god Krishna. It is found as an appendix to the Mahabharata.The Puranas mention lineages of various creatures like Daityas, Nagas and descendants of Prajapatis and Rishis. Similary, Kalidasa composed of RaghuVansham in later period is another famous example of Vamsa.

EPICS

Historical Information from the Ramayana

The Ramayana of Valmiki has been rightly called a historical epic. As already stated, the author himself calls it a puratana Itihasa (ancient history) which gets vindicated by his incorporation of dynastic history of the Solar and Lunar families and other historical details of various kingdoms and principalities, towns and cities, polity and administration, the condition of the Aryan society in the time of the Ramayana, life and culture of some tribal people, etc., in it. The historicity of Ramayana can do doubt be proved to a certain extent.

Genealogy of Northern India

The genealogy of the kings of Ayodhya (the capital of Kosala Kingdom) from Iksvaku down to Rama of the Solar family is preserved in Valmiki’s Ramayana. The genealogy is no doubt systematically arranged. But it is incomplete as it contains only some 35 kings. As a matter of fact, there were 64 kings in the pre-rama period as it appears from the Puranic records. A brief history of two other dynasties (the Videha dynasty and the Vaisala dynasty) of the same Solar family is also given in the text. The Videha dynasty sprang from Iksvaku’s son Nimi who is also called Videha. He was the founder of the royal family of Mithila. He was succeeded by his son Mithi whose son was Janaka I who was further succeeded by Several kings down to the time of Siradhvaja identical with Janaka II). From the genealogical order of the kings of this dynasty it appears that in the line of Nimi there were fifty-two kings after him who ruled over the kingdom of Videha with its capital at Mithila (Janakapur, which now lies just within the border of Nepal.) The text is replete with some valuable information about the history and antiquity of the Vaisala dynasty. The king Visala was the founder of this dynasty or kingdom with its capital at Vaisali also called Visala. From the genealogical list of the kings of this dynasty as given in the text it appears that he was succeeded by nine kings down to Sumati.

History of Lunar Family

Information on Historical geography

A number of towns and cities like Pratisthana, Pragjyotisapura, Ayodhya, Mithila, Vaisali, Mathura, Hastinapura, Girvraja (Rajagrha), Mahismati, Kampilya and Kusavati also figure in the Ramayana. The text not only deals with the history of their foundations but also gives their vivid description and provides a glimpse into an urban life.

historical geography also with regard to various kingdoms, principalities, janapadas and urban centres and various races and tribes existing in different parts of India in those days.

information about the rights and duties of a king, nature and functioning of the State, administration of justice, war and politics, the social and religious life of the Aryans

MAHABHARATA

1. GENALOGICAL HISTORY OF NORTH INDIA

2. HISTORY OF URBANIZATION OF GANGA VALLEY

3. GEO POLITICAL HISTORY OF NORTH INDIA

Historical Information from the Mahabharata

The Mahabharata was originally composed by Vyasa exactly three years after the Great Bharata battle came to an end. It was first named Jaya Itihasa. In the text itself it has been repeatedly called an Itihasa (history). It is further said that this Bharat Itihasa, full of the details of valuable subjects, is the best of the Itihasas. It was also called Bharata Samhita because of being a history of Bharat dynasty.

C.V. Vaidya considers it both an epic and a history. He further writes Works known as Histories or Itihasas were known even in Vedic times.

V.S. Agarwala opines that it is not that type of history in which historical events are chronologically arranged. It has its own historical value.

Genealogical History of Northern India

Mahabharata include that of Pururava, of the five sons Yayati, Anu, Druhyu, Tarvasu, Yadu and Puru, of the kings of Puru’s descendants called Pauravas, the kings of Bharata and Kuru dynasties in the line of the pauravas and the kings of the Pancala dynasty. The histories of the kingdoms and dynasties of the Anavas (descendants of Anu) The Yadavas in general including the Andhaka – Vrsnis, the Bhojas and the Haihayas, the Yadavas from Mathura to Dvaraka (which include the details of the reasons of shifting the capital from the former place to the latter, their fratricidal war and destruction and sinking of Dvaraka city in the sea) the Pauravas, Bharatas, Kurus and Pancalas, etc. are also depicted therein. The dynastic history of the Kasi and Magadha kingdoms described in the text is of equal historical value.

History of Urbanization of Ganga Valley

on early phase of urban settlements in the Gangetic valley as well as in other parts of India. It contains information about the foundations and growth and some urban features of some towns and cities like Hastinapura, Indraprastha,Kausambi, Ahicchatra, Kampilya, Girivraja (Rajagrha), Campa, Kasi (Varanasi) and Mahismatipur.

Information on Geo-political History of Northern India

A long list of kingdoms (states) and Janapadas (territorial units and peoples) existing in different parts of India and that of republican communities, notably the Andhaka-Vrsnis, the confederate Yadava tribes of Mathura and the Sivis, Kunindas, Trigartas, Ambasthas, Odambaras, Yaudheyas and Ksudraka-Malavas of the Punjab are furnished in the Mahabharata.

contemporary social life with details of caste system, the position of nobles, the brahmanas, slaves and women, the custom of sati, the practice of polygamy, marriage system and the religious beliefs, etc. is vividly portrayed in the great epic

PURANIC TRADITION OF HISTORIOGRAPHY

1. HISTORY OF COMPOSITION OF PURANA

2. ATTRIBUTES OF PURANA

3. HISTORICAL VALUE OF PURANA

4. HISTORICAL TIME SPAN OF PURANA

5. HISTORIAL INFORMATION FROM PURANA

6. DYNASTIC HISTORY OF INDIA OF PRE BHARATA WAR

7. HISTORY OF ARYANISATION OF INDIA

8. DYNASTIC HISTORY OF INDIA POST BHARAT WAR

9. DYNASTIC HISTORY OF INDIA DURING HISTORICAL PERIOD

10. INFORMATION REGARDING FOREIGN RACE IN EARLY INDIA

11. HISTORY OF NAGA, VAKATAKAS AND OTHER MINOR RULING DYNASTY

12. HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT INDIA

13. SOCIAL POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE HISTORY OF NORTHERN INDIA

14. 
    

HISTORY OF PURANAS

There was originally a single text called Purana Samhita (or Itihasa Samhita) whose uthorship has been ascribed to the great sage, Veda-Vyasa, He inherited the tradition of preserving and compiling the Puranic data from his predecessors.

THERE WAS ONLY ONE PURANA IN THE BEGINNING WHICH LATER DIVIDED INTO 18 PARTS WAS ORIGINALLY CALLED PURANA SAMHITA AND ITIHASA SAMHITA, COMPOSED BY VEDAVYASA. VYASA WAS CALLED ITIHAS KARTA (A GREAT HISTORIAN). ONE OF THE PART OF THESE PURANAS WAS BHARAT SAMHITA OR BHARAT ITIHASA BY VYASA LATER KNOWN AS MAHABHARATA

THE ORIGINAL PURANA CONTAINED ONLY DYNASTIC HISTORY of PRE BHARAT WAR PERIOD

Puranas and the Mahabharata also included some important historical subjects like dynastic genealogies of pre-Bharata war period, contemporary events, etc. It is practically not possible to chronologically arrange his all works. Nor can he be placed in a chronological framework.

The said eighteen Puranas contain among other things historical tradition of the Aryans.

6 MAIN PURANAS = MATSYA, VAYU, VISHNU, BRAHMANDA, BHAGAVATA, BHAVISHYA PURANA VERY IMPORTANT FROM HISTORICAL POINT OF VIEW.

MATSYA AND VAYU ARE KNOWN AS PURATAN PURANA

THESE SIX PURANAS, ALTHOUGH ALONG WITH MYTH AND STORIES CONTAINS FAITHFUL HISTORICAL RECORDS. A. WEBER HAS ALSO ADMITTED THAT SOME OF THE OLD PURANAS CONTAIN HISTORICAL PORTIONS WITH KINGS, DYNASTIES, GENEALOGIES, AND CHRONOLOGY.

PURANAS DEAL WITH VAMSA AND VAMSANUCHARITA - NUCLEUS OF THE POLITICAL HISTORY IN PURANA

V. A. SMITH = THE MOST SYSTEMATIC RECORD OF THE INDIAN HISTORICAL TRADITION IS THAT PRESERVED IN THE DYNASTIC LISTS OF THE PURANAS.

MODERN EUROPEAN WRITERS INCLINED TO DISPARAGE THEM, HOWEVER THEY CONTAIN MUCH GENUINE AND VALUABLE HISTORICAL TRADITION.

The tradition of studying, teaching and interpreting the Itihasa and Purana set by Vyasa and followed by his disciples was handed down from generation to generation.

History of composition of Purana

The original Purana contained the details of the kingdoms and dynasties with genealogies of only the pre-Bharata war period. It saw several recensions with additions sometime between c.500 BC and AD 500. The Puranakaras applying their historical sense time to time incorporated the historical events of the past along with other subjects in it during the previously mentioned period.

The Puranic sutas played very important role in the preservation of ancient Indian historical tradition. According to some Puranic texts, their special duty was to compose, arrange and preserve the genealogies (vamsavalis) of the kings of various dynasties which constituted the source material for the Itihasas and Puranas.

Kautilya also informs us that “the pauranika, the suta and the Magadha” were three officials of salaried class retained by a king or prince for listening to the Itihasa and Purana.

the sutas belonged to Brahmana class also the warrior or ksatriya clas or of mixed parentage. The contributions made by the sutas in the field of historiography was no less significant than that of any historiographer (or Itihasakara) of the contemporary age. The Sutas are often equated with bards as they used to bestow extravagant praise on great kings and heroes of the past while writing or singing

about their deeds

ksatriya tradition preserved in the Puranas is not deficient in the historical sense. This tradition is concerned chiefly with kings and heroes and their great deeds, genealogies, etc. Ksatriya tales and ballads have some historical consistency. Royal genealogies certainly do not betray the lack of historical sense. The Puranic “genealogies are essentially chronological; and the old tales, especially those narrated in the course of the best versions of the genealogies, have also an historical character.”

Attributes of Purana

The Puranas deal with five subjects or topics, viz.

(a) Sarga (original creation),

(b) Pratisarga (dissolution and recreation),

(c) Vamsa (genealogies),

(d) Manvantara (an epoch of each Manu)

(F) Vamsanucarita (histories of dynasties of kings mentioned in the genealogies).

These are the five attributes (called pancalaksana) of a Purana. Out of these five, the two, vamsa and vamsanucarita, are purely historical subjects.

Historical value of Purana

About the historical value of Puranic genealogies of the royal families, Pargiter observes “Though historical works about ancient India are wanting, yet tradition has handed down fairly copious genealogies of the ancient dynasties.

The genealogies form the basis by which the investigation of tradition for historical ends may be tested. They supply the best chronological clue, for the Vedic literature The Puranas in general are partly legendary and historical. Out of eighteen main Puranas, the six – Matsya, Vayu, Visnu Brahmanda, Bhagavata and Bhavisya – are very important from a historical point of view.

EXAMPLE

1. GENEALOGIES OF IKSHAVAKU RULERS OF KOSHALA AND CAPITAL AT AYODHYA

2. GENEALOGIES OF RULERS OF VIDEHA CAPITAL OF MITHILA.

3. GENEALOGIES OF VAISHALI

4. GENEALOGIES OF ANARTA (GUJARAT) WITH ITS CAPITAL AT KUSHASTHALI (DWARKA)

5. KINGDOMS AND DYNASTIES WITH GENEALOGIES OF THE LINEAL DISCENDANTS OF PURURAVA, THE PROGENITOR OF THE LUNAR FAMILY AND RULER OF PRATISTHANAPUR ON THE BANK OF THE GANGA IN PRAYAG OF THE SAME PERIOD ARE OF GREAT HISTORICAL VALUE.

6. PURUS OF MADHYADESH (GANGA YAMUNA DOAB), THE YADAVAS IN YAD LINE, HAIHAYAS OF NORTH-WESTERN-CENTRAL-SOUTH INDIA, THE ANAVAS OF THE NORTH, DRUHYUS OF THE NORTH-WEST AND TURAVASUS OF THE SOUTH EAST ALL 5 SPRANG UP FROM YAYATI.

7. PAURAVA'S SETTLEMENT IN SARASWATA REGION AND UPPER DOAB

YADAVAS SETTLEMENTS IN NARMADA, MALWA, GUJARAT AND GANGA YAMUNA DOAB IS ASSOCIATED WITH OCHRE COLOURED POTTTERY (OCP) OF LATE HARRAPPAN PERIOD.

8. VISHNU PURANA GIVES DYNASTIC HISTORY OF THE MAURYAS. MATSYA PURANA GIVES DETAIL OF SATAVAHANAS AND VAYU PURANA GIVES DETAIL OF GUPTAS.

THE PURANIC HISTORY OF THE EARLY ARYAS HAS ITS OWN IMPORTANCE. THE PURANANIC DATA ABOUT THEIR ORIGIN AND EXPANSION IS REALLY VALUABLE. ACCORDNING OT SOME PURANAS, THEIR ORIGINAL HOMELAND WAS PRATISTHANA FROM WHERE THEY EXPANDED ALL OVER THE GANGETIC DOAB.

29 KINGS OF PURU DYNASTY CALLED THE PAURAVAS OF LUNAR FAMILY RULED OVER HASTINAPURA, INDRAPASTHA AND VATSA

30 KINGS OF IKSHAVAKU DYNASTY O KOSHALA OF SOLAR FAMILY INCLUING THE PREDECESSORS AND SUCCESSORS OF PRASENJIT AND

22 KING OF BRAHADRATHA DYNASTY OF MAGADHA HAVE ALL BEEN INCORPORATED IN THE DYNASTIC LISTS OF KINGS

GENEALOGICAL LIST OF THE DYNASTY IS ALSO FURNISHED WITH IN PURANAS

RULE OF UDAYANA OVER KAUSHAMBI

PEDIGREE AND PROGENY OF THE BUDDHA OF THE SHAKYA CLAN

KINGDOMS OF PANCHALA, SURASENA, VIDEHA AND ANGA AND KASHI ALL HAVE HISTORICAL CREDIBILITY

5 KINGS OF PRADYOTA DYNASTY WHO RULED THE KINGDOM OF AVANTI ARE MENTIONED IN THE PURANAS WITH THEIR REGNAL YEARS AND TOTAL DURATION OF THEIR RULE.

IT IS CLEARLY STAED IN SOME OF THE PURANAS THAT IT WAS CHANAKYA WHO UPROOTED THE NANDAS AND INSTALLED CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA ON THE THRONE OF MAGADHA 321 BCE WHICH IS A HISTORICAL FACT. 10 KINGS OF THE MAURYA DYNASTY INCLUDING CHANDRAGUPTA ASHOKA AND HIS SUCCESSORS ARE SAID TO HAVE RULED FOR 137 YEARS WHICH IS PERFECTLY ACCURATE. IN ONE OF THE PURANAS, IT IS ALSO MENTIONED THAT CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA WAS MARRIED TO THE DAUGHTER OF SULUVA (SECLEUCUS, A GENERAL ALEXANDER CALLED PAURASADHIPATI, ONE WHO SUBDUED KING POROS).

THE PURANIC DATA ARE EXTREMLY USEFUL FOR GENEALOGICAL AND CHRONOLOGICAL RECONSTRUCTION OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY OF THE PERIOD CONCERNED.

7 DYNASTY OF MAGADHA (HARYANKA, SAISUNGA, NANDAS, MAURYAS, SHUNGA, KANVAS, SATAVAHANAS) CHRONOLOGICALLY WELL ARRANGED AND

8 THE DETAILS OF VIKRAMADITYA S/O MAHENDRADITYA OF UJJAYINI AND HIS DYNASTY HAVE BEEN PROVIDED INTHE PRATISARGA PARVAN OF THE BHAVISHYA PURANA. THE TOTAL LENGTH OF THE REIGNS OF VIKRAMADITYA AND HIS FOUR SUCCESSORS IS ALSO GIVEN. THE FORMER IS SAID TO HAVE REIGNED FOR 60 YEARS (57 BCE) AND THE LATTER , INCLUDING HIS SON SHALIVAHANA FOR 75 YEARS. WHICH COMES TO A TOTAL OF 135 YEARS. WHICH IS ABSOLUTELY CORRECT.

9 DETAIL OF NAGA DYNASTY BASED ON PADMAVATI (PADAM PAWAYA), VIDISHA, NARWAR, KANTIPURI (KOTWAR) AND MATHURA BETWEEN 2ND bc TO 4TH ad.. AS PER K. P JAYASWAL THEY WERE CHRONOLOGICALLY WELL ARRANGED IN PURANAS. 9 NAGA KINGS OF PADMAVATI REFERRED TO IN THE VAYU/ VISHNU PURANAS, BUT WE KNOW 12 KINGS FROM COINS. ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE SHOW A SETTLEMENT OF NAGAS IN KOTWAR.

7 NAGA KINGS IN MATHURA BASED ON COINS

THUS, PARGITER STATES NAGA FAMILIES IN VIDISHA, PADMAVATI AND MATHURA BASED ON PURANAS

8 - GIVE BROADER DETAIL OF EARLIEST PHASE OF GUPTA RULE, VERY VALUABLE.

IT GIVES GEOGRAPHICAL DETAILS OF GUPTA EMPIRE. THE PURANIC PASSAGE SHOWS THE EXTENT OF THE GUPTA DOMINIONS OF PRE CHANDRAGUPTA PERIOD AND NOT OF THIS TIME.

BHAVISHYA PURANA INFORMED THE SEVEN KINGS OF THE GUPTA DYNASTY RULED FOR 245 YEARS BUT WE FIND THAT IN THE IMPERIAL GUPTA LINE THERE WERE 12 OR 13 KINGS FROM SHRI GUPTA TO BHANUGUPTA WHO RULED FOR 235 YEARS.

9- THE INFORMATION CONTAINED IN THE PURANAS ABOUT THE VAKATAKAS OF DECCAN IS VERY MEAGRE BUT AUTHENTIC. THE FOUNDER OF THE VIAKATAKA DYNASTY VINDHYASHAKTI FIGURES IN THE PURANAS. THE LENGTH OF HIS REGIN AND THAT OF HIS SON AND SUCCESSOR PRAVIRA ARE ALSO GIVEN THEREIN. THERE ARE SOME INCRIPTION AND OTEHR RELIABLE EVIDENCES TO PARTLY PROVE THE HISTORICAL AUTHENTICITY OF THE INFORMATION SUPPLIED BY THE PURANAS ABOUT THE VAKATAKAS.

10 - BHAVISHYA PURANA CONTAINS ABOUT THE PRATIHARS OF KANNAUJ AND PARAMARAS OF MALAVAS AND THE CHAHAMANAS OF AJMER AND DELHI AND CHALUKYAS OF ANARTA (GUJARATA). A NOTABLE FIGURE VATSARAJA FATHER O F NAGABHATTA II (805-833) FIGURES IN THE PURANA AS A KING OF AVANTI. PRATIHARAS EARLIER CAPITAL WAS UJJAYINI.

F. E. PARGITER WROTE - THOUGH HISTORICAL WORKS ABOUT ANCIENT INDIA ARE WNATING, YET TRADITION HAS HANDED DOWN FAIRLY COPIOUS GENEALOGIES OF THE ANCIENT DYNASTIES. THESE STATE THE SUCCESSION OF KINGS, AND IN THAT WAY ARE HISTORICAL.

JAMES TODD, HAS ALSO OBSERVED THAT THE PURANAS AFFORD MATERIALS FOR THE HISTORY OF ANCIENT INDIA. THEY CONTAIN MANY FACTS THAT SERVE AS BEACONS TO DIRECT THE REASEARCH OF THE HISTORIAN

A. K. WARDER OPINES THAT THE PURANAS PROVIDE A COMPREHENSIVE VIEW OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY FROM THE EARLIEST RECORDED KINGS AND THE ANCIENT DYNASTIES DOWN TO THE EARLY FOURTH CENTURY AD, THEY MENTION GUPTAS AND THROW SOME LIGHT ON THE HISTORY OF EARLY VAKATAKAS.

E. J. RAPSON - THE DESCRIPTIONS OF ANCIENT MONARCHS AND OF THEIR REALMS ARE ESSENTIALLY HISTORICAL. THEY MAY BE COMPARED TO THE SAGAS AND THE MEDIEVAL CHRONICLES OF EUROPE. THEY ARE THE PRODUCTS OF AN IMAGINATIVE AND UNCRITICAL AGE IN WHICH MEN WERE NOT CAREFUL TO DISTINGUISH FACT FROM LEGEND. IT IS THE TASK OF MODERN CRITICISM TO DISENTANGLE THE TWO ELEMENTS.

J. F. FLEET - THE ANCIENT HINDUS COULD WRITE SHORT HISTORICAL COMPOSITIONS CONCISE AND TO THE POINT BUT LIMITED IN EXTENT. THE HISTORICAL CHAPTERS OF THE PURANAS DO CERTAINLY INDICATE A DESIRE ON THE PART OF THE ANCIENT HINDUS NOT TO IGNORE GENERAL HISTORY ALTOGHETHER AND ARE CLEARLY BASED ON ANCIENT ARCHIVES WHICH HAD SURVIVED IN A MORE OR LESS COMPLETE SHAPE AND WERE SOMEHOW ACCESSIBLE TO THE COMPOSERS OF THOSE WORKS.

THERE ARE SOME ASPECT OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY LIKE

1. TOWNS CITIES

2. JANAPADAS, TERRITORY AND PEOPLE

3. KINGDOMS

4. STATE AND GOVERNMENT

5. POLITY AND ADMINISTRATION

6. SOCIETY

7. RELIGION

8. CULTURE

ALL THESE ARE RECORDED IN THE PURANAS

Buddhist Literatures:

Buddhist shoclars have made substantial contribution to the evolution of historiographical tradition in ancient Indda. They also recorded the past as well as contemporary events of historical nature in their respective works. Most of the works are in literary form both historical and semi-historical nature. Rhys David argues that the internal evidence of the Pali canon proved its antiquity and historical authenticity dully by archaeological evidences.

PITAKAS

Pitakas are the oldest Buddhist texts. There are three types of Pitakas- Suttapitaka, Vinaya Pitaka, Abhidhamma Pitaka. It was compiled after Lord Buddha attained Nirvana:

1. VIANAY PITAKAS (DISCIPLINE BASKET) consists of the laws of Buddhist Sangha.

2. SUTTA PITAKAS (THE TEACHING BASKET) buddhavacana consists of religious ideology and sayings of Lord Buddha.

3. ABHIDHAMMA PITAKA (HIGHER DOCTRINE BASKET) "shastras" (treatises) consists of Buddhist philosophies.

VINAYA :

According to Buddhist tradition, the complete Vinaya Piṭaka was recited by Upāli at the First Council shortly after the Buddha's death. These were basically created to provide codes of conducts for Monasteries, Bhikus, Bhikkunis, their daily routine, ethics etc Theravadin Vinaya, 227 rules for bhikkhus and 311 for bhikkhunis.

The Pāli Vinaya consists of:

Suttavibhaṅga: Pāṭimokkha and commentary

Mahāvibhaṅga: rules for monks

Bhikkhunīvibhaṅga: rules for nuns

Khandhaka: 22 chapters on various topics - MAHAVAGGA

Parivāra: analyses of rules from various points of view

The Vinaya Pitaka contains valuable historical information about two powerful Magadhan rulers, Bimbisara and his son Ajatasattu (Ajatasatru), the events that took place during their times, socio-economic and political life of the people, towns and cities and kingdoms and republics in the time of the Buddha, Buddhism, etc

The Mahavagga provides us with information about Gautama’s attainment of enlightenment and the first sermon he delivered at Saranath near Varanasi. The entire history of the foundation of the Buddhist community (Samgha) is recorded therein.

SUTTA PITAKA

The Sūtras (Sanskrit; Pāli: Sutta) are mostly discourses attributed to the Buddha or one of his close disciples. They are considered to be buddhavacana by all schools. Sutta-pitaka compiled by Ananda. These were created to teach Buddha's teaching with examples, parables and lectures. This body of literature is oriented towards common people.

The Buddha's discourses were perhaps originally organised according to the style in which they were delivered. They were later organized into collections called Nikāyas ('volumes') or Āgamas ('scriptures'), which were further collected into the Sūtra Piṭaka ("Basket of Discourses") of the canons of the early Buddhist schools.

There are five nikayas (collections) of suttas:

The Digha Nikaya (dīghanikāya; "Collection of Long Discourses"). - crafts and occupations of the time. the first of the five nikayas, or collections, in the Sutta Pitaka. Some of the most commonly referenced suttas from the Digha Nikaya include the Maha-parinibbana Sutta which described the final days and death of the Buddha, the Sigalovada Sutta in which the Buddha discusses ethics and practices for lay followers, and the Samaññaphala , Brahmajala Sutta which describes and compares the point of view of Buddha and other ascetics in India about the universe and time (past, present, and future); and the Poṭṭhapāda Suttas, which describe the benefits and practice of samatha meditation.

The Ambattha Sutta refers to king Pasenadi of Kosala who was the contemporary of the Buddha. This Sutta also throws light on the social position of the four Vanna, khattiya, brahmana, vessa and sudda. The Sonadanda Sutta refers to Campa visited by the Buddha with 500 monks, to king Bimbisara of Magadha and king Pasenadi of Kosala. This Sutta also tell us how the Anga kingdom with its capital Campa was absorbed in the Magadhan empire. The Mahali Sutta makes an incidental reference to the Buddha’s dwelling at Vesali.The Mahaparinibbana Sutta contains the details of how the Magadhan Monarch, Ajatasattu, hatched a plot to annihilate his Vajjian rivals.

The Majjhima Nikāya ("Collection of Middle-length Discourse).

Majjhima Nikaya are mainly concerned with the life and itinerary of the Buddha. In this respect the Ariyapariyesana Sutta is very important. It deals with different phases of his life and activivities.

Saṁyutta Nikāya (saṃyutta-), the "connected" discourses refers to king Pasenadi of Kosala the capital of which was savatthi. It contains historical narratives of a war that broke out between Ajatasattu, king of Magadha and Pasenadi

The Anguttara Nikaya (aṅguttaranikāya; lit. 'Increased by One Collection', also translated "Gradual Collection" or "Numerical Discourses", This nikaya consists of several thousand discourses ascribed to the Buddha and his chief disciples arranged in eleven "books", Anguttara Nikaya contains a list of sixteen mahajanapadas (large territorial states) that existed in the age of the Buddha.

The Khuddaka Nikāya (lit. 'Minor Collection') is the last of the five nikayas

his Khuddaka Pitaka was the repository for materials that were left out of the four Agamas/Nikayas

The Khuddaka Nikaya can easily be divided into two strata, one being early and the other late. The texts Sutta Nipata, Itivuttaka, Dhammapada, Therigatha (Theragatha), Udana and Jataka belong to the early stratum. The texts Khuddakapatha, Vimanavatthu, Petavatthu, Niddesa, Patisambhida, Apadana, Buddhavamsa and Cariyapitaka can be categorized in the later stratum

This nikaya contains some or all of the following texts:

Khuddakapatha

Dhammapada

Udana - The Udana makes mention of king Bimbisara of Magadha and king Pasenadi of Kosala.

Itivuttaka

Suttanipata - deals with social and economic conditions of the people ofthe time. The social position of the brahmanas and various pursuits they followed

Vimanavatthu

Petavatthu

Theragatha

Therigatha

Jataka

Niddesa

Patisambhidamagga

Apadana

Buddhavamsa

Cariyapitaka

Milindapanha

Cullaniddesa makes mention of a trade route from Patitthana to Magadha. There are references to Mulaka, Patitthana, Mahissati, Ujjeni

Mahaniddesa speaks of India’s commerce by sea with Yona and Paramayona. Towards

JATAKA TALES :

Jataka kathas were created which consisted of anecdote related to previous birth of Lord Buddha. The compilation of Jataka began in first century B.C but the present form of it was compiled in second century A.D. There are numerous compilation of the stories regarding previous births of Buddha, Jatakas (500+) based on own-experiences that of his previous births of Buddha and a inspiration stories of Buddha as a teacher.

From the Jatakas, we can draw a picture of the political, social, economic, and religious conditions of the people.

There are reliefs of the Jatakas on the stone wall around the stupas of Sanchi and Bharhut. We found 82 inscriptions serve as labels for panels depicting the Jatakas, the life of Buddha

MILINDPANHA ---- Milindapanha or Questions of King Milinda Bactrian Greek king, Menander (c 165 – 145 BC)

This is the work of Buddhist Monk Nagasena, IN NON CANONICAL FORM. Menander was an Indo-Greek King and Milindapanho is a text named after him. It resembles the dialogues of the plate and is written in very elegant prose. The text discusses a number of problems and disputed points of Buddhism. So, it is a masterpiece of the Pali Language. So, it is basically, a conversation of the philosophical dialogue between Greek ruler Minander and Buddhist saint Nagasena..

It had also trade relation with Pataliputra. The full details of conversations between king Milinda and Nagasena have been provided in all the sevenbooks of this work. It contains valuable information about the Buddhist monks who were persecuted by the Brahmana ruler, Pusyamitra Sunga (c 184-148 BC) and protected by Menander, a zealous Buddhist.

One of the important historical facts recorded in the Milindapanho is about Dhanananda, the last reigning Nanda king, who was uprooted by Canakya in a war in which Bhadrasala was the commander-in-chief of the Nanda army and the carnage was terrible. There are some other facts and contents of historical interest in this work. It contains a list of kingdoms, towns and cities, etc. It refers to the province of Yavana (bacteria in north Afghanistan watered by the Oxus) where the Bactrian Greeks established their rule. Alsanda (the town of Alexandria on the Indus founded by Alexander which was famous for coral trade), Bharukaccha (an seaport town equivalent to modern Broach), Country of Cina (China), the kingdoms of Gandhara (that had its capital at Purusapura), Kalinga (that had its capital at Dantapura ages before Bhddha’s time),

ABHIDHAMMA PITAKA :

English: Basket of Higher Doctrine) is a collection of canonical texts in the Theravada Buddhist tradition. The Abhidhamma Piṭaka is a detailed scholastic analysis and summary of the Buddha's teachings in the Suttas. it has a philosophical & scientific form. Obviously, these were meant for Buddhist scholars

Abhi means "higher" and dhamma here refers to the teaching of the Buddha. Thus Abhidhamma constitutes the 'Higher Teaching' of the Buddha.

Abhidhamma works are generally claimed by scholars not to represent the words of the Buddha himself, but those of disciples and scholars.

The Abhidhamma Piṭaka consists of books:

Dhammasaṅgaṇī (-saṅgaṇi or -saṅgaṇī)

Vibhaṅga (vibhaṅga)

Dhātukathā (dhātukathā)

Puggalapaññatti (-paññatti)

Kathāvatthu (kathā-) - composed by Thera Moggaliputta Tissa, president of the Third Buddhist Council held at Pataliputra under the patronage of king Asoka.

Yamaka

Paṭṭhāna (paţţhāna)

It consists of seven texts and deals with the doctrines of the Buddha in a scholastic manner. Buddhavamsha is a collection of legends depicting the 24 lines of Buddha. Dhammapada is a collection of 423 sayings of Buddha. It was completely compiled in the Third Buddhist Council in the reign of the Great Mauryan King Ashoka.

MAHAVASTU

The Mahāvastu (Sanskrit for "Great Event" or "Great Story") is a text of the Lokottaravāda school of Early Buddhism. Over half of the text is composed of Jātaka and Avadāna tales, accounts of the earlier lives of the Buddha and other bodhisattvas. The Mahāvastu contains prose and verse written in mixed Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrit. It is believed to have been compiled between the 2nd century BCE and 4th century CE

Buddhacharita

The Mahayana works of Ashwaghosha (2nd Century CE) OF BODH GAYA, such as Buddhacharita. It is a biography of Buddha. So, this text offers valuable materials on different aspects of ancient Indian History during the Kushana period. Kanishka, the Kushana ruler gave patron to the Ashwagosha. And Ashwagosha also headed the Fourth Buddhist Council held in Kashmir. Ashwagosha was also a great monk of Buddhist sect Mahayana.

Mahabodhivamsa composed by a monk Upatissa in the eleventh century AD has also some considerable historical value. A credible list of the names of king Kalasoka’s ten sons including the most prominent Nandivardhana of pre-Nanda period and that of nine Nandas including the last king Dhanananda who ruled over Magadha is provided therein. It also provides us with an account of attainment of enlightenment of the Buddha.

ARYA Manju-Shree-Mulakalpa

The Mahayana work Manju-Shree-Mulakalpa (Partially religious and partially secular) throws light on the personal qualities of Samudra Gupta, the Napoleon of India. So, it is a significant text for the study of the Gupta Period. It carries the political history of ancient India down to the eighth century Ad dealing with the Nandas, Mauryas, Guptas, Maitrakas (of Valabhi), Maukharis, Pusyabhutis and the Pala ruler of Bengal, Gopala, though in a sketchy manner.

The Pali Chronicles of Ceylon

Dipavamsha and Mahavamsha are the Pali Chronicles of Ceylon. So, these are authentic Buddhist Literature that determines the early career and succession of Mauryan King Chandragupta Maurya.

The Dipavamsa

The Dipavamsa was written at the end of the fourth century AD or the beginning of the fifth century AD by an anonymous Buddhist writer. Some of the kings of Magadha with the length of their reigns and the events of their times are mentioned in it. Bimbisara is said to have ruled for 52 years, Udayi Bhadda for 16 years and the ten sons of Kalasoka for 22 years. It further deals with the reign of the great Maurya king Asoka (the grandson of Candagutta and sonof Bindusara) and the notable events that took place in his time. It was during his reign or in C. 246 BC that Mahinda (Mahendra, his son) went to Ceylon and spread Buddhism there.

It focuses on the coming of Buddhism to Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and the establishment of the Sangha. So, the History of Sangha is also relating to the political history of Sri Lanka.

Mahavamsha

It covers the same themes but also highlights the history of the Mahavihara Monastery.

The Mahavamsa (Great History) compiled by Mahanama in Ad 431 is an authoritative work. A dynastic list of the kings of Magadha to Asoka with regnal years of most of them is preserved in it. It is recorded therein that Bimbisara was fifteen years old when he was anointed king by his own father and then reign for full 52 years. (Thus he was born in 558 BC, ascended the thronw in 543 BC and reigned till 491 BC) His son Ajatasattu reigned for 32 years (C 491-459 BC). It was the eighth year of his reign when the great Gautama Buddha died (i.e. in 483 BC) Ajatasattu’s successor Udayi Bhadda reigned for 16 years. His lineal descendants, Anuruddha and his son Munda, conjointly ruled for 8 years and Nagadasaka for 24 years. The throne of Magadha was then offered by the citizens, ministers and officials of Pataliputta to Susunaga (Sisunaga) who ruled for 18 years. His son Kalasoka ruled for 28 years. At the end of the tenth yhear of his reign a century had passed after the nirvana of the Buddha. Kalasoka’s ten sons (including Nandivardhana and Mahanandin) together ruled for 22 years. All the above-mentioned rulers altogether ruled for 200 years (c. 543-343 BC). It is further stated in this chronicle that during the reign of Kalasoka’s sons the Nanda dynasty became powerful and usurped the sovereignty of Magadha. The nine Nandas have been assigned 22 years as the length of their reigns (c.343-321 BC). It was Canakya who uprooted this dynasty by putting Dhanananda, the last reigning Nanda king, to death. All the three traditions, Puranic, Buddhist and Jain, are unanimous about this historic event. The genealogies and chronology of the kings mentioned above are very reliable. The genealogical lists of kings of the dynasties of pre-Maurya period do not agree with those of the Puranas in respects of their names, order and regnal years and total duration of their rule. However, the Puranic and Buddhists lists are supplementary to each other so far as their names are concerned and they have relative value but about the rest the latter stands as corrective to the former.

Divyavadana was another Buddhist text completed in 4th century A.D which consisted of information about different rulers.

This Buddhist work is of Napali origin. It tells Buddhist stories and throws light

on northern dynasties, from Mauryan kings to Shunga period. It throws light on the prosperity of the Magadha kingdom. Its capital Rajagrha is described as a rich, prosperous and populous city at the time of Bimbisara and Ajatasatru. It was an important centre of inland trade where merchants flocked from different quarters to buy and sell their merchandise.

Asokavadana was composed in the first -SECOND century AD by an anonymous Buddhist writer of the Sarvastivada School. It basically a biographical work, it speaks of Asoka and his times. Besides, it contains some other historical information too. It is primarily based upon the Asokasutra composed in Mathura sometime after the middle of the second century BC. The text throws light on the Anga kingdom with its capital at Campapuri of the time of Bindusara of Magadha. It refers to the Magadhan capital Pataliputra as having been attacked by his son Susima when his younger brother Asoka was reigning there, but the former was overpowered by the latter. It mentions the viharas built during the time of Asoka The information supplied in it about Asoka and his successors particularly Kunala are of great value

Lalitavistara, an important Sanskrit Buddhist text of the early first century AD is memoirs of the early life of the Buddha. The stories narrated about him there in are partly mythical and partly historical. Besides, it contains some other valuable information about kingdoms and republics, towns and cities etc. of his time

Jain Texts:

1.) Jain Canonical Literature

Ancient Jain literature is in various languages, like, Prakrit (Ardhamagadhi,

Shaurseni), Tamil, Sanskrit etc. The literature can mainly be classified into two parts,

Anga and Agamas (purva). Besides, Chedasutras (6) and Mulsutras (4) are also

important parts of it.

Anga and Agam

The Agama texts are the main Jain texts. The Acharangasutra, a part of the Agamas which were compiled were based on the teachings of Mahavira, talks about the conduct of Jain saints. Nayadhammakaha is the compilation of teaching of Lord Mahavira. There are many other Agama texts. They are total 12 in number. These works throw light on the teaching of Mahavir. The Acharang Sutra

reflects on codes-of-conducts of Jain monks'; whereas,

Vyakhyaprajapati commonly known as Bhagvati sutra throws light on Mahavir's biography and his exploits. the information about the 16 Mahajanapadas.

Kalpasutra Bhadrahahu I, who was a contemporary of the last Nanda king Dhanananda of Magadha and Candragupta Maurya, wrote the biography of Vardhamana Mahavira sometime before C.300 BC .

3 SECTIONS

1. BIOGRAPHIES OF 23 JAIN TIRTHANKARAS PROCEEDS MAHAVIRA

2. BIOGRAPHY OF MAHAVIRA

3. The twenty-third tirthankara named Parsvanatha

2) Philosophical

These comprised of Samaysar, Pravachansar etc. These were mainly created by

Acharya Kundakunda, reflected upon Jain spiritualism.

3) Puranas

The Jain Puranas were based on the framework of Vedic epics and Puranas;

however, with the main content of Jain philosophy. These comprised of Harivamsha

purana, Maha-purnana, Padmacharit etc.

Padma Purana (C.AD 676 – 77) in Sanskrit (with 18,000 verses divided into 123 Parvas) of Ravisena, Harivamsa Purana (AD 783) in Sanskrit (with 10,000 verses divided into 66 sargas) of Jinasena II, Adi Purana(AD 840) with 47 sargas of Jinasena III (the religious preceptor of the Rastrakuta emperor Amoghavarsa I, AD 815-77)

4) Biographies

These were comprised of Bhadrabahu-Charita, Jasahar-chariu, Naykumar-chariu

etc. The Bhadrabhau -charita throws light on the events related to Mauryan Emperor

Chandragupta and his teacher, Bhadrabhau-Jain Acharya.

The Jain literature also comprised of Kathakosh of Harisen, Parishishta-parva of

Hemchandra Suri, Dhananjay-mala (thesaurus), Alankar-chintamani (on literature),

Mahavir-ganit-sarsamgraha (mathematics), Niti-vakya-mrita of Somdeva (Political

Science) etc.

pattavalis,

which are very important historical documents of both the Digambaras and the Svetambaras, were maintained from the early times. The Prakrt pattavali of the Nandi Samgha, which is one of the oldest Digambara patavalis, and the equally old Svetambara Tapagaccha-pattavali belong to AD 500-900 and are sufficiently reliable

Jain prashasti ===

prasastis of Jain authors also constitute a valuable literary source of ancient Indian history. These prasastis occur in the works which were produced after the seventh century AD. They are generally found at the beginning or end of the works, or at the end of some or all chapters of a work. They are of various types. The prasasti of the author gives details about himself, his religious genealogy

Jain prabandhas ===

Prabandhas were written by the Svetambara scholars of Gujarat from the thirteenth to the fifteenth century. These works are purely of historical character and very valuable for a reconstruction of the history of Gujarat

Tiloyapannatti of Yativrsabha (C.AD 150-80) - 8000 verses - It contains a biographical description of al twenty-four Tirthankaras and records Puranic traditions about them.genealogy of Mahavira’s successors or a list of succession of Jain gurus after Mahavira upto ME 683, i.e. AD 156. It also throws some light on the dynastic history of ancient India from the first century BC to the fifth century AD

Vasudevahindi, a prakrt work of the fifth century AD by Samhadasa - yadu dynsty, mathura, maghad trade,

Kuvalayamala, a Prakrt work composed by Udyotanasuri of Jabalipur (Jalor) in circa AD 778, is very valuable as Gurjara-Pratihara king of Avanti, vatsaraja, nagabhata i, bhinnamala, trade internal and external, Huna expansion

Nitivakyamrta (composed in C.AD 959) of somadeva suri - rastrakuta kings krishna iii, Calukya prince Krsnaraja Deva” life society and economy of the time

Candraprabha-carita of Varanandi (C.AD 978)

Tilakamanjari, in about AD 970 Dhanapala, mentions Parmara time condition

Trilokasara (AD 973), a Digambara work by Nemicandra, preserves a dynastic list containing the names of Saka kings,

Parisistaparvan of Hemacandra (AD 1125-72), in court of Jayasimha Siddharaja (AD 1093-1143), and also enjoyed the patronage of his successor Kumarapala (AD 1143-72), the Calukya kings of Gujarat.

BIOGRAPHIC LITERATURE :

The literature of these types are mostly categorized in 3 parts

1. Kashmiri Tradition , Kshemendra-nripavali, Hemraj-Pratibhavali, Kalhad

2. Gujarati Tradition , Mostly Jains Jinsen Suri, Mertunga

3. North Indian Tradition

In the tradition above North Indian was mostly under the patronage of the kings. The author used to be the part of the court and get appreciation and needed financial support to write an eulogical form of the biography in which the king was always depicted victorious, traditional depiction, the generousity and valour of the kings were important part of the story telling. The Story was generlaly revolving around the king and his achievement of the power as well the beautiful queens. Almost all the biographies were written in this manner. Only selected incidents pertains to King life were depicted, and was concluded with his special achievements.

The story revolves around the King and his lover beautiful lady, and end with how he successfully got her in his life after several odds. This kind of story is depicted even in ancient texts like Abhigyan Shakuntalam, Ramayana,

various biographies have qualities to depict kings achivement in various steps .

1. Prapti, 2. Prayatn, 3. Praptyas, 4. Niyatapti, 5. Prahlad

The story is not written in chronological order but in above steps. Objective achievment is explained in the beginning itself, Kings could get success. Then after incidents are explained in the steps which ends with the achievement of rajyashri.

Eulogies

The Eulogies are those works which are created to praise the patron king (and

his deeds) by a charan/bhat/poet in the court. Such work, though one-sided, informs

us about king, his dynasty and family, his deeds & policies etc.

1) Vikramank-deva-charit:

This eulogy is written by Bilhan who praises the king Vikramaditya (of

Chalukya dynasty) and his various deeds.

Harshacharita of Banabhatta -

Banabhatta: Harshacharita

1. Personal Life of Banabhatta

2. Ancestry of Harshavardhana

3. Circumstances leading to accession of Harsa to the throne

4. Military expedition of Harsa as mentioned by Banabhatta

4. Politico-administrative and socio-religious information

5. Bana’s Harsacharita as a historical work- An Estimation

Of all the extant historical biographies of ancient times, mention may

first be made of the Harsacarita of Banabhatta), the court poet-cum-historian of

Harsa (AD 606-48) of Sthanvisvara

Bana himself calls his work an akhyayika, eight ucchavasas (chapters).

the first chapter, the author speaks of his own ancestry and lineage, he was the son of Citrabhanu in the Vatsyayana line of the Bhargava Brahmanas.first three chapters are devoted, of course, partly to the life and family of the author himself

Harsa’s ancestors find mention in the third chapter of the Harsacarita

Pusyabhuti who founded the kingdom of Srikantha with its capital at Sthanvisvara (in the late fifth or early sixth century AD). He has been described also as the founder of the royal Vardhana dynasty. not mentioned Naravardhan, rajyavardhana, adityavardhana.... Banabhatta directly gives details of prabhakaravardahan Prabhakaravardhana who was blessed with two sons, Rajyavardhana and Harsavardhana and a daughter, Rajyasri

He says that he was “A lion to the Huna deer, a burning fever to the king of Sindhudesa, a troublers of the sleep of Gurjara king, a bilious pleague to that scent-elephant, the Lord of Gandhara, a destroyer of the pride of the Latas, and an axe to the goddess of fortune and glory of Malava.”

the two sons of the defeated Malava king,

Mumaragupta and Madhavagupta, were sent to his court to confirm their

acceptance of his overlordship, as stated in the text. In the fourth chapter itself, it is

stated that Rajyasri was married to Grahavarman, the son of the Maukhari prince

Avantivarman of Kanauj.

The information furnished by Bana in the second chapter of his work regarding the administrative system and military organization of Harsa is of considerable historical value. He has highlighted the feudal structure of his administration. It may be stated here that the increase in the number of samanta, mahasamanta and feudatory chiefs after the disintegration of the Gupta Empire had great bearing on the administrative system of Harsa. Bana has presented an enlarged picture of the feudal system that had already existed in ancient India prior to Harsa’s time. The same system continued in the time of Harsa. According to Bana, there were different categories of samanta, viz., samanta, mahasamanta, apasamanta, pradhanasamanta, satrumahasamanta and pratisamanta who offered their services to Harsa and his predecessors

With regard to religious beliefs and faiths of the people, Bana informs us that altogether twenty-one religious sects existed in India. He has referred to three popular cults of Hinduism, the Saiva, Sakti and Vaisnava, the Lokayatika sect, Buddhism, Jainisk,

A long list of twenty-seven kings of different dynasties that ruled over different kingdoms in ancient India furnished by Bana in the sixth chapter of his work on the basis of his knowledge of the past history also deserves our notice.

ESTIMATION

Bana has not only provided the life history of Harsa but also a true picture of social, economic, political, religious and cultural life of the people of India in his time. Some other historical information of great value has also been incorporated in his work.

He has dealt with main theme of the work without much bias and prejudice.

it is undeniable that his work suffers from rhetorical descriptions and literary embellishment.

Rajtarangini:

1. Sources base of Kalhana

2. Principles of historical investigation by Kalhana

2. The Rajatarangini- Content

4. Historical significance of the Rajatarangini

This is perceived as the first-book of history of India, as per modern lines of

historiography. It is the history of Kashmir, written by Kalhan (born in 1100 AD in

Kashmir). He completed this book within two years, during the reign of King

Jaysimha of Kashmir. It is in Sankrit, comprising eight Khandas (chapters/volumes)

and 7826 sholkas (verses). It gives history of Kashmir from the period of

Mahabharata-war up to 12th century AD; however, only from 9th century, a precise

history can be seen.

Kalhan was an unbiased historian who, for writing history, utilized large body and variety of sources. He undertook field-work and traveled through out Kashmir. During his travel, he, not only collected sources but also interviewed local people and collected oral traditions. Thus based on literary sources and oral tradition and through extensive field-work, he wrote 'Rajatrangani'.

The principles Kalhana followed for carrying out his historical investigation also merit our attention. His strict adherence to the exposition of facts can best be qualified in his own words : “That virtuous (writer) alone is worthy of praise who, free from love or hatred, restricts his languae to the exposition of facts.”. He tells us that the discovery of truth was hs sole object. He discarded all bias and prejudice which is duty of a true historian.

Of fifty-two kings who are said to have ruled Kashmir in the early phase, the list of only seventeen which includes Gonanda I and his successors and some other kings has been provided in Book I, Kalhana could not find the names of thirty-five kings as their records are lost. The same book contains the list of twenty-one kings who succeeded Gonanda III. Book II contains the list of six princes from Pratapaditya I to Aryyaraja who belonged to Aditya dynasty. From Book III it appears that there was restoration of Gonanda dynasty and then princes of this dynasty from Meghavahana to Baladitya reigned in Kashmir. These three books contains more or less a traditional history from the time of the great battle of Kuruksetra or beginning of the Kali-yuga to the end of the sixth century AD which is based on itihasa-purana tradition.

during the reigns of Kaniska and one of his successors, Huviska Buddhism became once more a popular religion. Kashmir was never under the political sway of the Guptas. The Huna chief, Mihirakula, is said to have usurped the throne of a Kashmir ruler, who was his contemporary, sometime in the early sixth century Ad and exercised his authority over a limited territory in the valley.

The information provided by Kalhana in Books IV – VIII covering the period from early seventh century AD to about the middle of the twelfth century are more trustworthy than what we find in the earlier three books from both historical and chronological points of view.

Book IV contains the history of seventeen kings from Durlabhavardhana to Utpalapida who belonged to the Karkota (also called Karkotaka) dynasty Durlabhavardhana, the descendant of Naga Karkota or Karkotaka, founded this dynasty. He appears to have ruled from circa AD 598 to 634. His reign was chiefly distinguished by this encouragement of religion, the temples he founded, the endowments he bestowed upon the brahamans, and some other benevolent works he undertook for the general welfare of the people. He won the friendship of Harsavardhana by presenting him a prized tooth-relic of the Buddha for installation in a shrine at Kanauj. The most powerful ruler of the line was Lalitaditya (Ad 724-60), the third son of Durlabhaka alias Pratapaditya. Lalitaditya has been described as an efficient administrator, valiant warrior, great conqueror and patron of arts and culture. The author of the said work has given a faithful account of his digvijaya (conquest). He subjugated Yasovarman of Kanauj (in AD 773 or in about Ad 740) and invaded Karnata, then subject to a queen named Ratta, who submitted to the invader but was later restored to her dominions.

The narrative of fifteen princes from Avantivarman to Suravarman to Suravarman II belonging to the Utpala or Varman dynasty has been provided in Book V. After the death of Avantivarman, the reign of Kashmir passed into the hands of his on Sankaravarman. The latter reversed the peaceful policy of his father and kept himself engaged in wars and conquests. He invaded Darvabhisara (the region between the Vitasta or Jhelum and the Candrabhaga or Cenab), extended his sway to Trigarta region (Kangra) after subduing its king, Prthvicandra, and defeated the Gurjara (i.e. Gujarat of Pakistan) Chief Alakhana and his ally Lalliya Shahi seizing the certain territories, conquered earlier by Mihira Bhoja, from Mahendrapala I Pratihara, and transferred them to the Thakkiya chief. In order to replenish the treasury which became depleted because of his military operations, and also to satiate his desire to accumulate wealth, Sankaravarman subjected his people to every king of extortion

In Book VI, the author has provided the history of ten kings in the lines of Yasaskara and Parvagupta.

The history of six princes from Samgramaraja to Harsa belonging to so-called the Lohara dynasty is contained in Book VII. Samgramaraja alias Ksamapati, nephew of Didda and brother of the Lohara prince, Vigraharaja, ascended the throne in Ad 1003 and continued to rule till 1028.

The last and the eighth Book contains the history of seven kings from Ucchala (Ad 1101-11) to Jayasimha (AD 1127-59),

ESTIMATION :

The Rajatarangini is a native chronicle of Kashmir. One of the characteristic features of this chronicle is that it contains information Not only about kings but also about contemporary society, economy, religion and culture.

It contains valuable information about the religious toleration, the prevalence of three popular cults of Hinduism, Saiva, Sakti and Vaisnava and co-existence of Brahmanism and Buddhism, in Kashmir.

Kalhana seems to be balanced in his value-judgements. He describes the periods of glory and misery, and greatness and weakness of rulers

He has highlighted both the bright and dark sides of the character of some kings. For instances, he describes Harsa (the patron of his father) as tyrannical, but, on the other hand, counts his bravery as one of his good qualities.

His work shows his love of Kashmir and respect of his patron king. However, as a

historian, he also criticizes the negative-points of his king. The work shows his

beautiful narrative-descriptive style, dramatic dialogues, sprinkled with good-advises

here and there.

Rajatrangini shows importance of sources and variety of them for writing of

history. It also stresses the impartiality and unbiased nature of historian. According

to Kalhana, ''...Such person (historian) should be praised whose writing abstained

itself from any kind of anger-hatred and remained impartial while describing

historical events..". Such was the urge of Kalhana and work like Rajtarangini. Hence,

it is called as first book of History in India.